Note: The following article discusses LGBTQIA+ themes as portrayed in The Prom, including topics related to coming out, identity formation, and experiences of exclusion or discrimination. Readers are encouraged to prioritize their well-being and seek support if any of the content is distressing. For LGBTQIA+ teens in need of support, resources such as The Trevor Project (1-866-488-7386 or www.thetrevorproject.org) offer confidential help and crisis intervention.

Build a prom for everyone/Show them all it can be done

If music blares and no one cares/ Who your unruly heart loves

Build it now/ Make people see how the world could one day be

It might come true if we take a chance/ But 'til that day comes

I say cue the drums/ It's time to dance

—It’s Time to Dance

The Prom burst onto the Broadway scene in November 2018 and ran 310 times before its closure 9 months later in August 2019. Despite its short tenure on the Great White Way, a movie adaptation was released on Netflix in 2020 with a cast of household names (James Cordon, Nicole Kidman, Meryl Streep, Adrianna DeBose) and newcomer Jo Ellen Pellman in the lead role; Murphy, 2020). The story follows Emma, an openly lesbian high school student in a small Indiana town who faces backlash from the school’s PTA after wanting to bring her girlfriend to the prom. When the PTA cancels the prom to exclude Emma from attending, four struggling Broadway actors seize the opportunity to revive their careers by championing Emma’s cause. They travel to Indiana to support her, but their self-centered motives complicate the effort. Emma and her girlfriend, Alyssa (the closeted daughter of the vocally opposed PTA president), struggle to navigate their relationship amid bullying and community resistance. The story blends humor and heart as the Broadway stars learn to be genuine allies, culminating in a fight for inclusivity and a prom celebration that embraces love and authenticity for all.

LGBTQIA+ Youth

One thing's universal / Life's no dress rehearsal

When people find a scapegoat to condemn

We went big, yet we've blown it / Well, I guess I should have known it

All along, tonight belonged to them

—Tonight Belongs to You (Reprise)

The LGBTQIA+ community is at the heart of the story, with the film focusing on the challenges and resilience of sexual minority youth. Let’s start by clarifying some commonly misunderstood terminology. Sexual minorities are “groups of people whose sexual orientation, gender identity, or sexual characteristics are different from the presumed majority of the population, which are heterosexual, cisgender, and non-intersex individuals” (Hartney, 2020, para. 1). Sexual orientation is related to, but distinct from, gender identity, which is a person's internal sense of their own gender (such as identifying as male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the gender spectrum) regardless of the sex assigned to them at birth. To put it another way: sexual orientation describes who someone is attracted to, and gender identity is about who someone is (check out this Psychology Today article for more helpful information). Within the context of The Prom, Emma identifies as a lesbian (sexual orientation) and as a female (gender identity); thus we will focus on sexual orientation in this article.

Determining accurate prevalence rates of individuals who identify as a sexual minority is a complex and challenging task for several reasons. First, underreporting remains a significant issue, as many people may be reluctant to disclose their sexual orientation or gender identity due to concerns about stigma, discrimination, or lack of privacy. Second, measurement techniques often fail to fully capture the nuance and diversity of gender and sexual orientation, with survey questions sometimes using limited or outdated categories that do not reflect the full spectrum of identities. Third, the current political climate in the United States has reduced research funding and support for projects focusing on the LGBTQIA+ community, further limiting the availability of comprehensive data. Additionally, the definition of sexual fluidity continues to evolve, with more individuals embracing identities outside traditional labels, making it difficult to create standardized measures (See Coffman et al., 2017, for a helpful review). Despite these challenges, recent data from the nationally representative Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) indicate that approximately 9.8% of American teenagers identify as a sexual minority (Depa et al., 2022). This estimate underscores the importance of inclusive, sensitive research methods and continued advocacy for the visibility and well-being of sexual minority populations.

Bullying, Exclusion, and Mental Health

Note to self: Don’t be gay in Indiana

—Just Breathe

From the very beginning of the film, Emma faces persistent anti-LGBTQIA+ bullying from her classmates and community. She is subjected to verbal harassment during gym class, and her locker is vandalized with the slur “lesbo,” accompanied by teddy bears arranged in a degrading manner. The negative peer dynamics are reinforced by the broader school community, as many students blame Emma for “ruining” prom, creating an environment of exclusion and hostility. The most public, and heartbreaking, act of exclusion occurs when Emma is deceived into attending a so-called “inclusive prom” held solely for her, while the rest of her peers enjoy the real prom together, leaving her isolated and humiliated. Unfortunately, Emma is not alone: bullying in the LGBTQIA+ community is rampant. Recent national data from the CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) show that LGBTQIA+ students experience significantly higher rates of bullying than their straight peers, with 27% reporting cyberbullying versus 13%, and 33% experiencing physical bullying on school grounds compared to 17% (Kann et al., 2018). Additionally, a national study found that 80% of LGBTQIA+ adolescents reported bullying or peer harassment, highlighting the widespread and disproportionate victimization faced by sexual minority youth (Ybarra et al., 2015). These patterns depicted in The Prom reflect a broader reality, underscoring the urgent need for safer, more inclusive environments for LGBTQIA+ youth in schools and communities.

Research consistently demonstrates that LGBTQIA+ individuals experience disproportionately high rates of mental health challenges, such as depression, loneliness, and suicidal ideation (Mongelli, 2019). The minority stress model helps explain these disparities by highlighting the unique, chronic stressors that marginalized groups face due to societal stigma, discrimination, and prejudice (Fehling, 2024). Unlike everyday stress, minority stress is deeply embedded in societal attitudes and structures, manifesting through both external experiences (like discrimination or victimization) and internal processes (such as concealing one’s identity, self-stigma, or anticipating rejection). These stressors accumulate over time, significantly impacting mental and physical well-being. Although Emma and Alyssa appear remarkably resilient (which may not be an accurate representation of the experiences of many LGBTQIA+ youth), Emma’s experiences of isolation, harassment, and exclusion certainly illustrate how a hostile environment can intensify mental health struggles.

Identity and Coming Out

So, I had to conceal / This poor, unruly heart of mine

—Unruly Heart

The hostility and exclusion Emma experiences is not just the work of students but is sanctioned by adults in the community. This highlights not only how institutional and social pressures can reinforce prejudice and isolation, but how intolerance is often learned through observation (Bandura, 1977). The show also explores the emotional impact of this bullying, showing how it affects Emma’s sense of belonging and self-worth, while also touching on the struggles faced by other minority characters, such as Alyssa, who fears coming out due to anticipated rejection. (The process by which individuals disclose their sexual orientation or gender identity to others is commonly referred to as "coming out").

Coming out is often a significant milestone for LGBTQIA+ youth, with important considerations such as whom to tell, how to share their identity, and when to do so all playing a crucial role in their overall adjustment and well-being. Unsurprisingly, negative reactions to disclosure were found to have a lasting impact on teens’ well-being (Ryan et al., 2015). For Emma, coming out means living openly as a lesbian in a conservative town, facing direct bullying, isolation, and public scrutiny, yet ultimately finding strength in her authenticity and in the support she receives from allies. We also learn that Emma lives with her grandmother because her parents rejected her after she came out, and while the film provides few details about the circumstances, her experience reflects the reality faced by the estimated 15–51% of LGBTQIA+ teens who are turned away by their families (e.g., Carastathis et al., 2017).

Alyssa’s journey is marked by secrecy and apprehension, as she grapples with accepting herself and fears the consequences of coming out to her mother, a prominent school official and outspoken critic of LGBTQIA+ inclusion. Her reluctance and inner turmoil underscore how family relationships and the threat of rejection can profoundly shape the coming out process. Ultimately, Alyssa does come out to her mother, who, while initially hesitant, chooses to support her. And then there’s Barry Glickman, the flamboyant Broadway star, who experienced rejection from his parents after coming out and has remained estranged from them. Yet, the film delivers a powerful moment of reconciliation when Barry’s mother arrives at the prom to support him, highlighting the healing and transformative effect that parental acceptance can have for LGBTQIA+ individuals.

Emma also finds acceptance and affirmation. Her grandmother is loving and supportive, and principal Tom Hawkins is a staunch supporter. But her strongest source of support comes from an unlikely source: four Broadway performers who arrive in her small town. The actors (Dee Dee, Barry, Angie, and Trent) have faced their own journeys towards identity and self-expression, and provide Emma with a safe space to be herself, helping her feel seen and valued for who she truly is. Their acceptance is transformative, reinforcing the idea that coming out and embracing one’s identity are deeply influenced by the presence of supportive allies. For LGBTQIA+ individuals, such affirmation can be crucial in the process of identity development, as it fosters self-acceptance and resilience in the face of adversity (Rouse et al., 2021). Together, their stories illustrate that coming out is not a single event but an ongoing process shaped by personal, relational, and societal influences, and that supportive environments can make a profound difference in helping individuals embrace and express their true selves.

Conclusion

I just wanna dance with you /Let the whole world melt away

And dance with you/ Who cares what other people say?

And when we're through/ No one can convince us we were wrong

All it takes is you and me / And a song

—Dance with You

In conclusion, The Prom (Murphy, 2020) serves as a vibrant and heartfelt exploration of LGBTQIA+ experiences, shining a spotlight on the complexities of coming out, the pain of exclusion, and the transformative power of acceptance. Through the journeys of characters like Emma, Alyssa, and Barry, the film captures the real challenges faced by LGBTQIA+ youth, ranging from bullying and family rejection to the search for community and self-acceptance, while also celebrating moments of resilience, joy, and affirmation. While the show has a happy ending with a community-wide inclusive prom, it’s important to remember that such positive resolutions are not always reflective of real-life experiences for many LGBTQIA+ youth, who may continue to face exclusion, discrimination, or lack of support in their own communities. The film also addresses broader themes of community, acceptance, and the need for policies and practices that create safe, inclusive spaces for LGBTQIA+ youth. By weaving together themes of identity formation, mental health, and the importance of supportive environments, The Prom not only entertains but also educates, offering a powerful reminder of the ongoing need for empathy, inclusion, and advocacy in schools and beyond.

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall

Carastathis, G. S., Cohen, L., Kaczmarek, E., & Chang, P. (2017). Rejected by family for being gay or lesbian: Portrayals, perceptions, and resilience. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(3), 289–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.11790

Coffman, K. B., Coffman, L. C., & Ericson, K. M. M. (2017). The size of the LGBT population and the magnitude of antigay sentiment are substantially underestimated. Management Science, 63(10), 3168–3186.

Depa, N., Desai, S., Patel, S., Silvi, S., Hanif, S., Rizvi, S., Rahman, F., Ortego, G., Hsieh, Y., Pathrose, R.P.M., Parikh, T., & Mansuri, Z. (2022). Mental health disparities amongst sexual-minority adolescents of the US: A national survey study of YRBSS-CDC. Psychiatry Research, 314, 114635. https://doi/org.10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114635

Fehling, K. (March 11, 2024). LGBTQ+ mental health and the role of minority stress. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/building-a-life-worth-living/202403/lgbtq-mental-health-and-the-role-of-minority-stress

Hartney, E. (November 30, 2020). What sexual minority means. VeryWell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-sexual-minorities-21876

Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W, A., Shanklin, S. L., Flint, K. H., Queen, B., Lowry, R., Cheyn, D., Whittle, L., Thornton, J., Lim, C., Bradford, D., Yamakawa, Y., Leon, M., Brener, N., & Ethier, K. A. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance: United States, 2017. MMWR. Surveillance Summaries, 67.

Mongelli, F., Perrone, D., Balducci, J., Sacchetti, A., Ferrari, S., Mattei, G., & Galeazzi, G. M. (2019). Minority stress and mental health among LGBT populations: An update on the evidence. Minerva Psichiatrica, 60(1), 27–50. https://doi.org/10.23736/s0391-1772.18.01995-7

Murphy, R. (Director). (2020). The Prom [Film]. Ryan Murphy Productions

Rouse, S. V., Chu, L. E., & Gash, J. A. (2021). It gets better: Themes of redemption in the coming out narratives of LGBTQ+ adults. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 26(3), 318–329. https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN26.3.318

Ryan, W. S., Legate, N., & Weinstein, N. (2015). Coming out as lesbian, gay, or bisexual: The lasting impact of initial disclosure experiences. Self and Identity, 14(5), 549–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2015.1029516

Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Kosciw, J. G., & Korchmaros, J. D. (2015). Understanding linkages between bullying and suicidal ideation in a national sample of LGB and heterosexual youth in the United States. Prevention Science, 16, 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0510-2

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Film and media courses are hardly a new idea; versions of these classes have been offered for decades in a wide range of academic programs. Instructors from many disciplines (including psychology!) have long recognized and leveraged the pedagogical benefits of using movies, television, and other media to anchor abstract theories in vivid, memorable examples. More recently, researchers have begun to assess what many teachers have already observed anecdotally: Media can be an accessible, engaging, and highly relatable pathway for helping students grasp complex psychological concepts and processes (see Doody et al., 2025 for a review).

There are a lot of reasons why media courses are so effective—we detail a few below (see Swirsky et al., 2025, for a more thorough list):

1. They promote engagement and interest. Unsurprisingly, media classes get and hold students’ attention. Media naturally promotes engagement and interest by tapping into stories, characters, and visuals students already love, and allowing them to see “real” examples of course content.

2. They are fun. Film classes are typically engaging and enjoyable—for students and instructors alike. Faculty who teach film courses are likely to be movie enthusiasts themselves, and that genuine passion and excitement naturally spills over into the classroom, creating a lively, shared energy that makes abstract concepts feel immediate and alive.

3. They are relatable. Films provide vivid, narrative case studies of a wide range of psychological phenomena (e.g., prejudice, attachment, trauma, child development), which helps students map theory onto recognizable characters and situations instead of treating it as purely “textbook.”

Within the broad category of “Film Classes,” there are many ways to zoom in on specific topics. For example, West Virginia University offers a “Women in Movies” course that analyzes femininity across the life span as portrayed in popular Hollywood films. At Penn State, “Mental Illness and the Movies” helps “students learn about the origins and symptoms of various types of mental illness, the stereotypes and stigma that typically surround mental illness, and various ethical issues related to the treatment of mental illness”. Columbia’s “Cognitive Neuroscience of Narrative and Film” course “provides a broad survey of how narrative stories, films, and performances have been used as tools to study cognition in psychology and neuroscience.” Taken together, film and media do more than simply teach broad topics: They can be used strategically and intentionally to zoom in on specific ideas, processes, and content.

One specific form of film and media analysis is musical theater. Traditionally an in-person experience confined to theater venues, theater productions have become much more widely accessible through popular movie versions of Broadway staples and pro-shots (high-quality professional recordings), which surged in popularity during and after COVID as audiences sought immersive alternatives to live shows. Musical theater is a form of theatrical performance that integrates songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance to tell a story and convey emotional content, with music and lyrics advancing the plot alongside narrative elements. A musical theater movie production, such as In the Heights or The Sound of Music, adapts this structure to film by embedding original or adapted songs directly into the storyline—characters spontaneously burst into song and dance to express inner thoughts, reveal relationships, or propel the action, often with choreography that feels organic to the drama. This differs markedly from movies with soundtracks, where songs serve primarily as background scoring to set mood or underscore moments rather than driving the narrative through character performance.

As instructors who have both taught a Psychology of Musical Theater class, we bring deep enthusiasm for theater and its capacity to illuminate psychological concepts. We’ve discovered that musical theater uniquely amplifies the benefits of film-based teaching while adding layers of psychological depth that standard cinema cannot match. The key challenge lies in helping students see how musical theater uniquely serves as a teaching tool through its integrated storytelling.

So, what makes musical theater uniquely effective for teaching psychology?

1. The power of songs. The most powerful distinction between musical theater and regular movies lies in the music itself. Unlike spoken dialogue in traditional film, songs in musical theater can activate multiple neural systems simultaneously, such as auditory processing, motor areas, emotional centers, and language regions (Zatorre & Salimpoor, 2013). This creates richer encoding and multiple "hooks" for memory retrieval. Lyrics often directly articulate psychological states or dilemmas, providing quotable, repeatable illustrations of human behavior. For example, Wicked’s “Defying Gravity” serves as a powerful ode to a woman embracing her identity and fate. Furthermore, the shift from speech to song signals characters’ heightened emotion or revelation, amplified by musical cues like shifting tones, volume, and intensity. When Effie White belts out “And I Am Telling You I’m Not Going” in Dreamgirls, her raw emotional distress becomes viscerally clear in ways spoken dialogue alone could never achieve. The musical intensity doesn't just illustrate attachment and abandonment—it makes students feel it, creating an emotional memory tag that aids later recall (McGaugh, 2004). This is unsurprising, given that music evokes strong emotions on a neurological level (Vuilleumier & Trost, 2015), which can help students connect more personally with characters’ inner states.

2. Multisensory immersion. In a similar vein, theater provides a viewing experience that is far more multisensory than traditional film. Musical theater layers lyrics, melody, rhythm, choreography, and staging to externalize inner psychological states like conflict, joy, or despair, making psychological processes more concrete and memorable than spoken dialogue. This multisensory approach creates what cognitive scientists call "elaborative encoding"—when information is processed through multiple modalities, it forms richer memory networks (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). For instance, in the number “Cool” (West Side Story), the Jets’ frenetic, angular gang dance dissipates post-murder rage through synchronized leaps and lunges, channeling raw conflict and suppressed grief into physical release: Rhythm and staging making their volatile emotional control palpable. Unlike the solely narrative approach of traditional film, musical theater allows students to view human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in more complex and layered ways.

3. Repetition and reinforcement. Musical theater's reliance on reprises and motifs provides built-in repetition that strengthens learning. When a musical theme returns with new lyrics or context, it reinforces earlier concepts while adding complexity. The "I Dreamed a Dream" melody in Les Misérables returns throughout the show, each iteration deepening students' understanding of trauma, resilience, and hope. This spaced repetition leverages findings from cognitive research regarding how to enhance long-term retention (Cepeda et al., 2006).

4. The collective experience. Live theater creates a unique collective experience that binds audience members together in real time, forging a sense of shared presence and immediacy that cannot be recreated in film or streamed media. Unlike watching a movie alone or in a cinema, where the performance remains fixed and the audience passive, live theater unfolds before a live crowd, with actors feeding off the room's energy: A well-timed laugh ripples outward, collective gasps synchronize during tense moments, and applause swells as a unified wave of appreciation. A famous example is when the chandelier drops at the end of Act I in The Phantom of the Opera and the entire audience cries out in unison. This communal electricity heightens emotional investment, as every sigh, gasp, or cheer influences the performers, creating a dynamic feedback loop that renders each show a singular event co-created by all present.

Although our classes involve students watching musicals outside of class for logistical reasons, we encourage shared co-viewing experiences with hybrid course formats. Since such collective experiences enhance empathy, perspective-taking, and social connectedness (Páez et al., 2015), one of us also incorporates a live theater field trip and reflection as a required class component by arranging discounted tickets to the School of Musical Theater and Dance’s musical, which has been a highlight for many. Students don't just observe collective dynamics—they experience social contagion as emotions spread through the crowd, witness collective effervescence–that electric sense of shared energy and transcendence (Páez et al., 2015)—and connect with their classmates and strangers united in the same story. This embodied learning means students return able to articulate what these phenomena feel like from the inside, having experienced how their own emotions were amplified by the crowd around them.

Teaching a Psychology of Musical Theater course has been immensely rewarding, both for us and for our students (for more details and reflections on the course, see Swirsky, 2025). Musical theater transforms abstract psychological concepts into emotionally resonant narratives that students can analyze, internalize, and remember through characters' inner monologues, relational dynamics, and growth arc, making it an invaluable tool for teaching psychology. The songs become memory anchors, the choreography creates embodied empathy, and the emotional intensity forges durable memories. By engaging students in the collective energy of theater (whether through films or live shows) instructors can foster not just knowledge but empathy, critical thinking, and self-reflection, making psychological principles applicable to their own lives and unforgettable. Sometimes the best psychology classroom isn't a lecture hall at all—it's a stage.

References

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354

Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X

Doody, K., Schuetze, P., & Swirsky, J. M. (2025). The state of the field on popular culture themed (PCT) courses: Introducing the Journal of Thematic Instruction. Journal of Thematic Instruction, 1(1), 1–18. https://digitalcommons.buffalostate.edu/jti/vol1/iss1/1

McGaugh, J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144157

Páez, D., Rimé, B., Basabe, N., Wlodarczyk, A., & Zumeta, L. (2015). Psychosocial effects of perceived emotional synchrony in collective gatherings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(5), 711–729. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspi0000014

Swirsky, J. M., Geffen, S., Doody, K., Schuetze, P., Coyle, E., Timmons, L., & Weisgram, E. (2025). Benefits and challenges of developing and teaching popular culture-themed courses. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 36(2), 1–14

Swirsky, J. M. (2025). From the stage to the classroom: Reflections on a Psychology of Musical Theater class. Journal of Thematic Instruction, 1(1), 9–18. https://digitalcommons.buffalostate.edu/jti/vol1/iss1/2

Vuilleumier, P., & Trost, W. (2015). Music and emotions: from enchantment to entrainment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1337(1), 212–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12676

Zatorre, R. J., & Salimpoor, V. N. (2013). From perception to pleasure: music and its neural substrates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110 (Supplement 2), 10430–10437. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1301228110

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Dina Gohar, PhD, University of Michigan

Gilmore Girls is a popular early 2000s TV show set in the fictional small town of Stars Hollow, CT (Sherman-Palladino, 2000–2007). A beloved and frequently rewatched fan favorite, the show is known for its fast paced dialogue, small town charm, and heartwarming moments, although it’s also known for its complex relationships. Over the course of 7 seasons, we follow Lorelai (a witty and independent single mother who got pregnant at the age of 16), Rory (her academically ambitious teenage daughter), and Emily (Lorelai’s wealthy and judgmental, albeit, well meaning, mother) as they navigate life and love. On the surface, the show explores the close-knit bond and generational dynamics of the “Gilmore Girls.” But it’s not just a fun show; Gilmore Girls is also a great way to examine well known concepts of social psychology. Social psychology is the study of the way people are influenced by other human beings behavior, beliefs, and attitudes (Weiten, 2018). Gilmore Girls provides examples of this through the characters’ relationships with family, community, societal norms, and ultimately with themselves.

Social Conformity

We learn early on that Lorelai became pregnant by her boyfriend, Christopher, at 16—a turning point driven by her feelings of confinement within her wealthy parents' rigid and privileged world. Seeking independence from the expectations and formal obligations of her upper-class childhood, she left their Hartford mansion to start a new life in Stars Hollow with her infant daughter, Rory. This decision widened the emotional and cultural gap with her parents, especially her mother, Emily, who remained firmly rooted in the traditions and social circles of the upper class. Emily is the epitome of the upper-class wife: the consummate hostess who orchestrates dinner parties, cocktail hours, and charitable events to uphold the family's social standing. Her actions reflect the well-known social psychological concept of social conformity: the pressure to line up with the expectations of one’s social group in order to fit in. In Emily’s case, she views conformity to social norms as vital to protecting the Gilmore family’s reputation (McLeod, 2023).

This is depicted many times, as a major theme of the show is Emily’s resentment of Lorelai for rejecting the Gilmore lifestyle. An example of this is when Lorelai graduates from business school. Emily is visibly proud of her daughter for her accomplishments, yet she struggles to put aside her hurt over Lorelai’s choice to leave the family (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 2, episode 21). To Emily, breaking with social norms is unforgivable. Emily's struggle with Lorelai’s behavior is tinged with a complex mix of resentment and jealousy toward those who break from tradition and defy social norms.Although not wanting to admit it her sadness derives from a sense of rejection. She felt abandoned by her own daughter and longed to build a connection with Loreali but saw it as an obstacle due to her norms she stays true to. Emily comes from a generation deeply rooted in conventions where maintaining appearance and social order is paramount. When Lorelai chose a different, independent path rejecting the prescribed upper-class lifestyle and its expectations, Emily felt not only threatened but also perhaps even slightly envious of her daughter's freedom to live on her own terms. This jealousy is less about Lorelai personally and more about what she represents: a challenge to the controlled and orderly world Emily knows and values.

Emily’s struggle to balance her love for her family with her strict adherence to tradition creates much of the show’s emotional tension and adds depth to her character beyond the role of a rigid matriarch. This reflects a form of conformity within family relationships, where long-standing traditions and expectations shape behavior. Moderate conformity can foster joy and strengthen bonds among family members, but excessive conformity may strain relationships, leading to a loss of personal identity and self-worth, which can result in negative emotions taken out on others (Koehler, 2024). Emily exemplifies this dynamic; her rigid commitment to tradition and upper-class norms causes her to lose touch with herself and damages her relationship with Lorelai, as she prioritizes pride and social acceptance over understanding Lorelai’s life choices… chief among them the decision not to conform.

Attributions

When comparing Lorelai’s lifestyle to that of her parents, the differences highlight a clash in perceptions which is consistent with attribution theory. Attribution theory explains how people interpret the causes of behavior and events, attributing them either to internal characteristics (dispositional factors) or external circumstances (situational factors) (McLeod, 2023). Lorelai views her parents’ lifestyle as controlling, attributing their social expectations and events to unnecessary pressure, without recognizing these as essential for maintaining their way of life. Conversely, Emily perceives Lorelai’s choices as irresponsible, failing to appreciate that Lorelai’s behavior is a reaction to the pressure she felt living under their roof. These interpretations are examples of attributions: the process of making guesses about the causes of someone’s behavior (Weiten, 2018).

And yet, when faced with the choice between making an internal or an external attribution, humans have an overwhelming tendency to overemphasize internal causes for others' behavior while underestimating external situational factors. This is known as the fundamental attribution error, which leads people to incorrectly assume that others’ actions are primarily due to their personality or character rather than the circumstances influencing them. Conversely, for ourselves, we are far more likely to attribute our choices to external factors. In other words, we are much more likely to explain away our own choices by things outside of our control, while assuming that other peoples’ choices are a result of their own character flaws.

Gilmore Girls offers some great examples of the fundamental attribution theory, specifically in the many miscommunications between Lorelai and Emily. Emily often criticizes Lorelai for her decision to run away with Rory. She feels as though she was deprived of her opportunity of being a grandmother. In one flashback scene, we see teenage Lorelai taking herself to the hospital to deliver her baby alone without asking her parents for help (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 3, episode 16). Emily interprets this decision as stubborn and defiant (an internal attribution) without considering the context. However, Emily overlooks the external situational factors such as Lorelai’s desire for independence, fear of judgment, and complicated family dynamics surrounding the pregnancy. This exemplifies the fundamental attribution error because Emily attributes Lorelai’s behavior to personal flaws while underestimating the significant situational pressures influencing her actions.

Similarly, Lorelai often judges her parents as being controlling or manipulative (an internal attribution) without considering their worry for her. Such misattributions and judgments contributed significantly to the breakdown in the Gilmore family’s relationships, illustrating how flawed assumptions about motives can cloud understanding and deepen conflicts. Taken together, while attributions help us make sense of behavior, they are only guesses and can lead to misunderstandings when not tempered by empathy for situational factors. In fact, this mental bias immensely affects our judgements and interactions with a person and often twists the narrative of other peoples’ actions (Koehler, 2024).

Peer Relationships

Lorelai’s daughter, Rory, is not your typical teenager. She is an academically gifted student with ambitious dreams of attending an ivy league school (initially bound for Harvard, but eventually accepting her admission to Yale). When Rory starts attending Chilton, a prestigious prep school, she quickly encounters Paris Geller, a fiercely driven and competitive student who sees Rory as an academic rival (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 1, episode 2). At first, Paris aggressively targets Rory, viewing her success as a threat. She taunts Rory, undermines her efforts, and even uses her position as editor of the school newspaper to assign Rory tedious tasks, seemingly trying to push her out (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 2, episode 5). Paris’s aggressive behavior is fueled by her intense desire to be the best and her vulnerability beneath a tough exterior.

Aggression involves behaviors (physical, relational, or verbal) intended to harm or hurt others (Weiten, 2018), and is commonly influenced by social interactions, situational contexts, and group dynamics. For teenagers, peer victimization—or experiencing aggression from one’s peers—is a common occurrence that can have a major impact on their social relationships. While prevalence rates are difficult to assess, some estimates suggest that almost half (44.2%) of teenagers report experiencing some form of peer victimization during their middle and high school years (https://stopbullying.gov/, 2024). Peer aggression does not only involve the attacker and the victim, but also often involves the broader social relationships of the peer network (Andrews, 2023). In this case, Paris often involves her friends, Madeline and Louise, in her aggression against Rory. For example, from the beginning when Paris is trying to figure out who this new student was (Rory), she involved her friends in helping steal her file and get background information to use against her (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 1, episode 2).

However, as the show progresses, Paris and Rory’s relationship evolves. Despite the rocky start, they begin to have more genuine and supportive interactions. They start spending time together outside of class, even attending concerts and social events, where Rory sees a more vulnerable, less guarded side of Paris. Paris comes to respect Rory’s resilience and dedication, and they form a partnership, like running together for student body president. Their friendship deepens further when they become summer roommates during an internship and as Rory comforts Paris after a painful college rejection (Sherman-Palladino, 2000, Season 3, episode 16). Over time, Rory and Paris transition from rivals to close friends who support each other through academic pressures and personal challenges. By the time they graduate and move on to Yale, they share a strong bond, acknowledging that their friendship will endure.

From a social psychology perspective, their relationship exemplifies the concept of "frenemies" - a complex blend of friendship and rivalry. A frenemy is someone who is your friend who insults and undermines you but is still considered a friend in some sense (Geher, 2018). Paris’s early aggressive behavior toward Rory, including taunts and undermining actions, reflects competition and social comparison, core elements in adolescent development. Yet, beneath this conflict lies a grudging respect and eventual bonding, as both girls recognize each other’s strengths and vulnerabilities. This frenemy dynamic involves a mixture of social influence where rivalry pushes each to excel, while moments of support and alliance create a complicated but meaningful connection. Their evolving relationship (from antagonistic competitors to close friends) highlights how adolescent social relationships can blend conflict and camaraderie, reflecting the nuanced social realities teens often navigate. This tension between competition and cooperation makes their story a compelling example of how "frenemies" function in shaping identity and social bonds during adolescence.

Conclusion

Taken together, the social psychology themes woven throughout Gilmore Girls reveal how life, love, and family in Stars Hollow are shaped by powerful, often invisible, group processes. The power of social conformity is clearly shown through Emily’s rigid adherence to social norms… and Lorelai’s unwillingness to accept them. Lorelai has more of a free spirit which Stars Hallow provides for her while Emily and Richard are opposed to this way of living. Recurring attributional patterns, such as Emily and Lorelai blaming flaws in each other's personality rather than circumstances, expose the biases that fuel misunderstandings and conflict in family and peer relationships. Finally, the evolving peer networks surrounding Rory and Paris’s frenemy-ship show the complexity of adolescent peer relationships. Together, these storylines illustrate that beneath the fast dialogue and small-town charm lies a rich case study in how social psychology can help explain who people become and how they relate to one another.

References

Andrews, N. C. (2023). A model of peer aggression and victimization on the social spectrum: A relational perspective. Developmental Review, 69, 101088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2023.101088

Geher, G. (2018, April 29). What is a frenemy? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/darwins-subterranean-world/201804/what-is-frenemy

Koehler, J. (2024, March 17). Attribution theory and why your relationships hinge on it. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beyond-school-walls/202403/attribution-theory-and-why-your-relationships-hinge-on-it

Koehler, J. (2024, June 10). The conformity trap. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beyond-school-walls/202406/the-conformity-trap

McLeod, S. (2023, June 11). Attribution theory in psychology: Definition and examples. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html

McLeod, S. (2023, June 15). What is conformity? Definition, types, psychology research. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html

Sherman-Palladino, A., Palladino, D., Polone, G., & Rosenthal, D.S. (2000). Gilmore Girls [Television series]. Warner Bros. Television.

StopBullying.gov. (2024, October). Facts about bullying. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.stopbullying.gov/resources/facts
#:~:text=How%20Common%20Is%20Bullying,among%20male%20students%20(16.7%25)

Weiten, W. (2018). Psychology themes and variations. Cengage.

Jessica DiGiovannangelo is currently a first-year nursing student at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. When she graduates, she hopes to become either a pediatric or labor and delivery nurse. Besides either of her choosing, she just hopes to become a successful nurse overall. In her free time, she likes to listen to music, bake, and watch her favorite shows.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Every morning, from the minute we open our eyes, we are taking in visual information. But what makes certain things that we see memorable, and other things forgettable? What separates an ordinary observer from an expert investigator who can walk into a room and instantly spot what others miss? In psychology, this ability can be explained through the lens of sensation and perception, where incoming sensory information is filtered, then organized, and interpreted using both bottom-up and top-down processes (Krauss, 2021). Additionally, neural mechanisms such as lateral inhibition and cortical magnification support these detective skills, as well as higher-level brain regions like the medial temporal lobe that underlie recognition and memory (Goldstein & Cacciamani, 2021). These concepts are not only found in case studies and laboratory environments, but in applied settings such as crime-scene investigation, where astute observations are made and dramatized in pop culture. A study by Watalingam et al. (2017) used mobile eye-tracking to reveal how expert investigators allocate gaze differently from novices. This provides a scientific lens for understanding how Shawn Spencer, the protagonist of Psych, entertains audiences with his “psychic” abilities but is actually an exaggerated portrayal of perceptual expertise (Franks et al., 2006–2014).

In a study to examine how experts and novices process mock crime scenes, researchers measured their eye movements with mobile eye-tracking (Watalingam et al., 2017). Participants walked through a staged shooting scene, and researchers analyzed how their gaze moved through the scene and how long they fixated on particular locations. Experts showed more consistent search sequences and longer fixations on relevant evidence (e.g., bloodstained shoes), whereas novices were less efficient, with random sequences (e.g., examining the entire crime scene equally). Research on rapid scene analysis supports the idea that observers do not just process isolated details, but quickly extract the overall meaning of a scene, a process known as perceiving the “gist” of a scene. Fei-Fei et al. (2007) found that viewers perceive scene-level information within the first fraction of a second, even before detailed recognition of objects occurs. At crime scenes, rapid gist processing may help experts and Shawn quickly establish a scene schema that shapes their subsequent visual fixations, guiding their eye movements towards meaningful regions rather than random scanning (Fei-Fei et al., 2007; Watalingam et al., 2017). This parallels Shawn’s frequent demonstrations of entering a crime scene and immediately focusing on relevant details; for example, when he notices a smudge on a table, or the subtle difference in footsteps that other people might overlook (Franks et al., 2006–2014). Like experts in the study who exhibited superior reconstruction accuracy, Shawn is often shown piecing together a coherent narrative from scattered sensory details, a process grounded in sensory detection and knowledge-driven inference (Franks et al., 2006–2014; Watalingam et al., 2017).

The difference between novices and experts in Watalingam et al. (2017) illustrates the balance of bottom-up and top-down processing. Novices are more susceptible to bottom-up distractions, while experts use prior knowledge to guide attention towards relevant evidence. Watalingam et al. (2017) explained this top-down processing as “hypothesis-based evidence interpretation” (p. 78), where experts used prior schema to make sense of the scene. Perception is rarely, if ever, purely stimulus driven; it is shaped by expectations and schemas (Goldstein & Cacciamani, 2021, Chapter 6). This framework explains why novices may dwell on many different singular details, like noting a bullet lodged into the wall and a bloody shoe print (bottom-up processing); whereas Shawn, like the experts, uses both bottom-up processing, when noticing important details that could be evidence combined with top-down processing to make inferences about how the evidence from the crime scene fits together with what is known about the case (Franks et al., 2006–2014; Krauss, 2021; Watalingam et al., 2017). For example, when he notices the direction of footprints leading to a window (bottom-up), Shawn is able to infer that the intruder’s escape route was through the window (top-down interpretation). This reflects higher-level processing supported by brain areas like the medial temporal lobe, which allows for episodic memory (Rugg & Vilberg, 2013). Shawn’s uncanny ability to recognize a suspect from years earlier mirrors how experts integrate sensory detail with memory systems, as Watalingam et al. (2017) observed in their expert participants.

A key finding from Watalingam et al. (2017) was that experts used selective attention to filter irrelevant clutter and revisit critical areas, leading to more accurate reconstructions. Selective attention is supported by fundamental visual mechanisms (Mangun, 1995). Lateral inhibition enhances the contrast between adjacent photoreceptors, allowing important boundaries or edges in a scene, like the outline of a weapon or blood splatter, to stand out more clearly (Hartline et al., 1956). Similarly, center-surround receptive fields in retinal ganglion cells sharpen the differences between light and dark areas, improving edge detection and helping investigators like Shawn identify small, high-value details in cluttered environments (Franks et al., 2006–2014; Kuffler, 1952). Cortical magnification furthers visual acuity by giving foveal details more neural representation in the visual cortex, allowing high acuity for investigators when their gaze is pointed towards something such as a bullet hole (Dougherty et al., 2003). Experts fixated longer on relevant evidence in the crime scene, demonstrating how these mechanisms provide the raw perceptual clarity needed for selective attention to be effective (Watalingam et al., 2017). Research on high-level scene perception indicates that fixations are not random; they are shaped by ongoing cognitive interpretations of a scene (e.g., where and how long a person fixates depends on the meaning and semantic relevance of scene regions, not just on low-level salience; Henderson & Hollingworth, 1999). In Psych, this is seen in how Shawn can hone in on tiny smudges, a faint scratch, or the outline of where a picture used to be on the wall (Franks et al., 2006–2014). His gaze and attention are drawn to the same kinds of high contrast cues. While his “psychic” flashbacks dramatize the effect, lateral inhibition, center-surround receptive fields, and cortical magnification are some of the underlying explanations of how real experts allocate attention to extract meaningful details from visually noisy environments (Dougherty et al., 2003; Hartline et al., 1956; Henderson & Hollingworth, 1999; Kuffler, 1952; Watalingam et al., 2017).

The findings of Watalingam et al. (2017) show that experts are not defined by noticing more, but by noticing more effectively: directing their attention, sequencing their searches, and interpreting fixated objects more effectively than novices. This kind of perceptual expertise comes from the seamless interaction of sensory detail with memory and interpretation, where, with training, early visual processes sharpen the input and higher-level processes transform into meaningful recognition (Goldstein & Cacciamani, 2021, Chapter 4). Shawn Spencer dramatizes this interaction, his so-called “psychic” powers are more of an exaggeration of how selective attention, top-down processing, and memory-driven recognition allow someone to extract meaning from subtle details (Franks et al., 2006–2014). Shawn, although a fictional character, is not supernatural; from a psychological standpoint, his abilities can be understood as the natural, if heightened and trained, outcome of perceptual expertise.

References

Dougherty, R. F., Koch, V. M., Brewer, A. A., Fischer, B., Modersitzki, J., & Wandell, B. A. (2003). Visual field representations and locations of visual areas V1/2/3 in human visual cortex. Journal of Vision, 3, 586–598. https://doi.org/10.1167/3.10.1

Fei-Fei, L., Iyer, A., Koch, C., & Perona, P. (2007). What do we perceive in a glance of a real-world scene? Journal of Vision, 7(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1167/7.1.10

Franks, S., Henze, C., Kulchak, K., Damski, M., Callahan, B., & Bycel, J. (Executive Producers). (2006–2014). Psych [TV series]. GEP Productions; NBC Universal Television; Pacific Mountain Productions; Tagline Pictures; Universal Cable Productions.

Goldstein, E. B., & Cacciamani, L., (2021). Sensation and perception (11th ed.). Cengage.

Hartline, H. K., Wagner, H. G., & Ratliff, F. (1956). Inhibition in the eye of Limulus. Journal of General Physiology, 39, 651–673. https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.39.5.651

Henderson, J. M., & Hollingworth, A. (1999). High-level scene perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 243–271. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.243

Krauss, D. (2021). Bottom-up versus top-down processing: How interventions work. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/atypical-children-extraordinary-parenting/202111/bottom-up-versus-top-down-processing-how

Kuffler, S. W. (1953). Discharge patterns and functional organization of mammalian retina. Journal of Neurophysiology, 16(1), 37–68. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1953.16.1.37

Mangun G. R. (1995). Neural mechanisms of visual selective attention. Psychophysiology, 32(1), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb03400.x

Rugg, M. D., & Vilberg, K. L. (2013). Brain networks underlying episodic memory retrieval. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(2), 255–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2012.11.005

Watalingam, R. D., Richetelli, N., Pelz, J. B., & Speir, J. A. (2017). Eye tracking to evaluate evidence recognition in crime scene investigations. Forensic Science International, 280, 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.08.012

Fiona M. Rayne is a senior psychology major and public health minor at Occidental College. She is an Honors Research Assistant and Lab Coordinator in the Occidental Canine Intelligence Lab under the supervision of Dr. Zachary Silver. Her thesis project is on social cognition and memory in dogs. After graduating this year, she hopes to attend graduate school studying developmental and comparative psychology. In her free time, Fiona enjoys spending time outdoors, whether swimming, hiking, or camping with her family and friends. Feel free to add or reach out to her on LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/in/fionarayne/.

Dr. Susan Geffen is currently an NTT Assistant Professor of Psychology at Occidental College. Her research interests include the impact of nontraditional course materials (e.g., Sesame Street videos) and projects on student engagement and academic performance, as well as the development of cognitive skills in children and adults. Outside of academia, Dr. Geffen is an avid reader, enjoys swing dancing and musical theater. You can email her at sgeffen@oxy.edu.

In the landscape of clinical psychology, eating disorders are often categorized by their behavioral markers: the restriction of Anorexia Nervosa (AN), the compensatory behaviors of Bulimia Nervosa (BN), or the recurrent episodes of Binge Eating Disorder (BED). However, within the lived experience of the sufferer and the observant eye of society, a more insidious hierarchy exists. We have created a "Moral Model" of eating disorders where restriction is romanticized as a form of tragic but "noble" pursuit of perfection, while bingeing is unfortunately cast as a vulgar lack of willpower.

The Genesis of Shame: Growing Up in a Larger Body

As a psychology student, I studied the DSM-5 criteria for these conditions. Yet, the textbooks often fail to capture the seductive nature of the “restrictive high” or the crushing weight of the “binge shame.” For many, including myself, the journey through these states is not a straight line but a pendulum. We find ourselves trapped in a cultural narrative where our worth is inversely proportional to our caloric intake. We learn to love ourselves most when we are consuming the least, mistaking a biological starvation response for a pinnacle of human "self-control."

I've always had a struggling relationship with food. In 25 years, I have experienced the overwhelming chaos of Binge Eating, the rigid control of Anorexia, and the moral obsession of Orthorexia Nervosa. Not that I was ever aware of it, at the time. I didn’t even know that what was happening to me had a name at all. According to research, particularly a 2022 study from Breton et al., ED symptom levels peak between 12 and 15 years of age, both for males and females and, of course, I was no exception. My entry into this hierarchy began at 11 years old, from a place of perceived "failure": being overweight. And there's a unique loneliness in growing up overweight, especially with younger and thinner siblings. Living in a larger body always felt like a constant apology. It was never going unnoticed but never being noticed. After the realization, shame came—deep sense of humiliation for being overweight. One night, during a family dinner, my little cousin pointed out, in front of everyone, how my arm was twice his size. I laughed it off one time, a second time too, when he said it again, and when I felt the tears poking my eyes to get out, I got up and went to lock myself in the bathroom to cry. He was just a kid, but that night I hated him and I hated me. I hated my body before I even stopped being just a kid myself. And when I began to restrict, the initial feedback from the world was not concern, but applause.

The Seduction of Restriction

As I transitioned into a phase of eating tiny portions, I experienced a profound shift in my internal architecture. I didn't just feel thinner; I felt powerful. This is what clinicians call an ego-syntonic state (Gregertsen et al., 2017) where the symptoms of the disorder align with the individual’s ideal self-image. I didn't know the terminology then. I only knew that, when I didn't eat, I felt more "in control" than I had ever felt in my life. I felt I had more worth.

However, the human brain is not a machine. Eventually, the restriction broke. The "power" evaporated, replaced by uncontrollable binges that felt like a hijacking of my own limbs. This "break" is where the stigma lives. When I was restricting, I felt like a “success,” when I was bingeing, I felt "weak." This personal cycle mirrors a broader psychological fallacy: the belief that restriction is a choice of the will, while bingeing is a failure of it.

To understand why the "binge" is filled with such disproportionate shame, we must first deconstruct the myth of restrictive "self-control." In psychology, we often point to the Minnesota Starvation Experiment (Keys et al., 1950) as the gold standard for understanding the relationship between restriction and bingeing. In the 1940s, Ancel Keys placed healthy male volunteers on a semistarvation diet. The results were revolutionary: as the men lost weight, they became obsessed with food, suffered from profound depression, and most importantly, when they were finally allowed to eat, they engaged in "extreme overeating" or "bingeing."

When we apply this to the modern experience of BED and restriction, the "self-control" we celebrate in restrictive eating is actually a precursor to the "uncontrollable" binge. Research by Polivy and Herman (1985) on "Restrained Eating" suggests that the very act of cognitive restriction creates a psychological and physiological pressure cooker. When a person "breaks" their diet, the resulting binge is not a moral failing; it is the brain’s Prefrontal Cortex losing the battle to the Hypothalamus, which is screaming for survival (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011).

Why, then, do we still feel "more worth" when we don't eat? The answer lies in Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985). Society tends to attribute "thinness" to internal, stable, and controllable factors, like effort, discipline, and grit. Conversely, "heaviness" or "overeating" is often attributed to internal, stable, but negative factors: laziness or greed, a glaring cognitive bias, as we are taught to look at the "Bio-Psycho-Social" model, and yet still fall into the trap of thinking our "clean eating" makes us better people. When I felt "more powerful" while starving, I was internalizing a societal script that says a body in deficit is a body in control. This is a dangerous narrative that prevents those with BED from seeking help.

If restriction is the "high," the binge is the "crash." Neurobiologically, binge eating is often a response to a dopamine deficit. When we restrict, our brain’s reward system becomes hypersensitized (Volkow et al., 2013). When food is finally consumed, the dopamine release is explosive, far beyond what a "normal" eater experiences. The pathways involved in BED overlap significantly with substance use disorders. However, unlike someone with a drug addiction, a person with BED is often blamed for their "drug." This ignores the fact that chronic restriction and weight stigma actually deplete executive function, making "self-control" biologically more difficult to access (Inzlicht et al., 2014).

Media Tropes: The Tragic Martyr vs. The Glutton

To better understand why we internalize the "high" of restriction and the "shame" of the binge, I also looked at what the media portrays. We can, in fact, identify a dichotomy in how eating disorders are aestheticized. Restrictive disorders, particularly Anorexia, are often portrayed through a "tragic-ethereal" lens. Films like To The Bone or the portrayal of Cassie in Skins lean into the archetype of the "martyr," a girl so sensitive and disciplined that she transcends the base need for food, with a haunting beauty that reinforces the idea that their starvation is a sign of a "deep," albeit tortured, soul. Contrast this with the portrayal of bingeing. In the media, the act of consuming large quantities of food is often relegated to "The Glutton" archetype. Think of the "stress-eating" tropes in sitcoms where a character's loss of control is played for laughs, or the grotesque framing of bingeing in films like The Whale. Here, the binge is only seen as a character "letting themselves go." I recognize this as a reinforcement of Weight Bias internalization (Pearl & Puhl, 2018). We watch these portrayals, we learn that restriction is a "noble tragedy," while bingeing is a "moral comedy," and with this perspective is somewhat easier to see how it felt subconsciously better to align myself with the tragic martyr rather than the messy glutton.

Orthorexia and the Modern Trap of "Clean Eating"

As my journey progressed from "not eating" to eating "super clean and healthy," I entered a phase that is increasingly recognized as Orthorexia Nervosa (Dunn & Bratman, 2016). Orthorexia, currently not a formal DMS diagnosis, but discussed in the literature, is characterized by an obsession with the "purity" of food rather than just the quantity. However, "clean eating" remains a socially sanctioned vehicle for the same restrictive "high." Even if I was eating, the rigid rules about what was "allowable" kept my brain in a state of hyper-vigilance. I liked myself more because I had replaced "starvation" with "discipline." This is the "Self-Control" trap in its most modern, Instagram-filtered form. However, the neurobiology remains the same, still triggering the HPA axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis). The body perceives a deficit. Eventually, the "clean" facade breaks just as easily, leading back to the same uncontrollable binges.

The Ongoing Negotiation of Recovery

Even as I write this, possessing the clinical vocabulary to name my struggle, I still live in the shadow of the scale. The dissonance of being a psychology student who understands the HPA axis while still living in fear of a carbohydrate is an ironic burden, but perhaps that is exactly why this perspective matters for the field of psychology. We are often taught that recovery is a destination, a clean break from the past. For me, a daily negotiation with internalized stigmas that don't disappear just because I've read the DSM-5. And I choose to share this struggle because the only thing more dangerous than the disorder itself is the silence that suggests we should have "self-controlled" our way out of it by now.

References

Breton, É., Dufour, R., Côté, S.M., Dubois, L., Vitaro, F., Boivin, M., Tremblay, R.E. and Booij, L. (2022). Developmental trajectories of eating disorder symptoms: A longitudinal study from early adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Eating Disorders, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-022-00603-z

Dunn, T. M., & Bratman, S. (2016). On orthorexia nervosa: A review of the literature and proposed diagnostic criteria. Eating Behaviors, 21, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.12.006

Gregertsen, E. C., Mandy, W., & Serpell, L. (2017). The egosyntonic nature of anorexia: an impediment to recovery in anorexia nervosa treatment. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02273

Heatherton, T. F., & Wagner, D. D. (2011). Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(3), 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.12.003

Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., & Macrae, C. N. (2014). Emotional fatigue and self-control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(3), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.005

Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelsen, O., & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The biology of human starvation. University of Minnesota Press.

Pearl, R. L., & Puhl, R. M. (2018). Weight bias internalization and health: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 19(8), 1141–1163. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12701

Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1985). Dieting and binging: A causal analysis. American Psychologist, 40(2), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.2.193

Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Tomasi, D., & Baler, R. D. (2013). The addictive dimensionality of obesity. Biological Psychiatry, 73(9), 811–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.12.020

Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548

Giulia (“Julia") Cantella recently graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Psychology from Penn State University and will soon be starting as a Clinical Research Assistant at Brown University Health. Her research interests center around clinical and behavioral psychology, with a specific focus on addiction, social dynamics, and developmental patterns. She has a strong background in research, having recently presented her lab's work on stress and substance use at the APHA conference. Outside of the lab, Giulia is an avid reader, writer, and arts and crafts enthusiast. Connect with her on LinkedIn or reach out via email at giulia.cantella@icloud.com.

When I started college, I already had an unimaginable weight on my shoulders. Not because I was finally starting a new path towards the life I had dreamed of, but because I was carrying the sacrifices of all those who came before me (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014). The continuous pressure of my mom's favorite advice, "Do this so you don't end up like me," followed me into every psychology lecture. But what toll did this overwhelming concept of generational success have on me and my values as a psychology student?

The Collision of Worlds

Most of my psychological strain comes from the conflict between my family's desire to be financially secure and the nebulous reality of what a psychology career really is. When I say family, I exclude my mother, who is the only exception; she has always been my number one supporter and values my field of study. When someone asks her what I study, she confidently says forensic psychology despite her language barrier.

The strain comes from how they left their countries and forgot about their dreams to facilitate mine (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014), so they think that since I haven't had it as hard as they have, my career is simply a piece of cake, but the reality is that it's not. No, I will not get a high-paying job immediately after graduating. This all leads to “we support you, until it's your time to support us” (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014).

Then reality hits: I can’t, like many other students, stop here. I have to continue aiming for my career, whether that includes graduate school, internships, research positions, entry-level jobs, or even licensure. All of that before even thinking about financial stability. This is what my family doesn’t understand. I remember during my second semester of college, I was at a family event. My cousin asked me, “You're still not working?” I didn't even know what to say. I didn't know whether to start a ruckus or answer calmly. I stayed calm and said, “No.” He stated, "Oh no, you should have gone on to pursue dentistry; there is quick and easy money in that field.” At the moment, this hurt my feelings immensely because I am studying psychology out of a desire to make an impact in this world and to learn how our brains are more than just an organ. And I told him loud and clear, “I study forensic psychology because it's my passion, and I'd rather spend years learning and working in a field that I love instead of making money fast in a field that I have absolutely no interest in.” They believe that experience and further education aren’t necessary for my career path. They don't consider my desire to fully prepare and guarantee a future for myself and my family. All they wish and see are dollar signs, like I have a reminder hanging over my head. In other words, a payment for their investment in my future. This is a universal experience for other undergraduate students (Stephens, 2010).

Stephens’ research highlights how there is a cultural mismatch between the individual norms of a university. These norms focus on individual growth and self-discovery; meanwhile, this clashes directly with the reality of first-gen students: interdependence. School expects us to focus on ourselves and what we want; however, we are often motivated by the desire to give back to our families and satisfy their expectations. Creating the root of this internal conflict, where putting ourselves and our ambition first feels like we are letting down those who sacrificed everything. Every step I take in finishing my degree, whether that is applying for grad school, a research lab, or certifications, I realize that even though I am closer to achieving my dreams, I am “behind” on fulfilling my duties as a first-generation.

The Hypocrisy of Self-Care

The whole purpose of my getting into college was the word sacrifice; the sacrifice of those who came before me isn’t just motivation, but my own personal psychological obstacle. This contradicts my understanding of psychology, which values creating boundaries and understanding the importance of self-care. My family had to walk through dirt slopes and rivers in order to obtain an education. They persevered without any complaints because they had a goal and did anything and everything to get there. In a way, I am doing the same, but just in a different way. However, what is inevitably different among us is how we describe and manage stress (Lipson et al., 2023). In their eyes, stress is a factor of our imaginations, and you can easily forget about it in the blink of an eye; meanwhile, in my mind and my field of study, it can be managed by speaking with someone or even taking a mental health day. During my lectures, I learn about the importance of self-care, self-awareness, awareness of our emotions, and how not to let an emotional crash occur. What I learn within the four walls of the classroom is having a one-on-one fight with what I live in my home, which corners me into a place where I have to hide my own problems while at the same time neglecting my mental wellness.

Does this make me a hypocrite? Advising others about the importance of boundaries, speaking about your emotions, and self-care, meanwhile, I don't do that myself (Stephens, 2010). I have the tools around me to ease some of the overload, but I feel guilty doing so. So when I think about taking a mental health day or need someone to vent to, I feel like I am letting them down. In other words, breaking the invisible generational contract I carry on my neck. I am learning how to become a psychologist to help those who are mentally struggling, to provide them with consolation and relief, but I still have to be the strong, powerful woman who can handle anything handed to her. It isn't easy to try to understand your own emotions as a forensic psychology student. These profuse, vulnerable feelings are difficult to understand from our perspectives because we are taught to be unbiased, observational, and analytical, which adds a whole new layer of identity separating our careers from our own emotional state. My education has taught me the vocabulary I need, but my heritage and culture prevent me from characterizing myself. This isn’t just part of my imagination; research shows that it’s common among students like me. Studies show that this internal and external pressure contributes to the higher rates of stress and mental health challenges reported by first-generation students. According to Lipson et al. (2023), it is more common for first-generation students to develop depression (43% vs. 38%) and anxiety (37% vs. 33%) when compared to their non-first-generation peers.

Rewriting the Contract

The most important key to success is to rewrite the story when you hit a slump, not to end it immediately. As the new generations, we must advocate for the inclusion of mental health openly, not as something that must be discussed in secret. Mental health has been a roadblock for those who came before us, who lacked many of the resources that are now available to us. So use this as motivation. I'm grateful that despite all the roadblocks and doubts, I was unwaveringly proud of myself and what I was doing. Now, many of my family members feel comfortable discussing their concerns or emotions with me, despite my not having a degree in hand. This changed every aspect of my education. I no longer feel a mental workload; I feel supported by the community. I feel accepted—not that I need it as motivation—but it feels incredible to know that the people around you aren't judging your life choices. My mom helped me become the stable first-gen student I aspired to be. I have always been committed to this path I'm forging for myself so that my little cousins and my future kids can say, “I want to be like you,” and don't have to hear, " Do this so you don't end up like me.” I have changed the narrative, and I will continue to do so in every opportunity I am provided.

Maturing in college is realizing it's not just about earning a diploma, it's realizing you must rip up that generational contract and rewrite it under your own terms. This means no more carrying responsibilities and doubts, and the mentality of making it a norm since the concept of it all being worth it one day is what's most important (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014). Instead, take care of your mental health, set goals and boundaries so you can do the same for others, and do not let your thoughts and guilt tell you otherwise; you are doing what is right for you and those around you.

References

Blackwell, E., & Pinder, P. J. (2014). What are the motivational factors of first-generation minority college students who overcome their family histories to pursue higher education? College Student Journal, 48(1), 45–56. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1034201

Lipson, S. K., Diaz, Y., Davis, J., & Eisenberg, D. (2023). Mental health among first-generation college students: Findings from the national healthy minds study, 2018–2021. Cogent Mental Health, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/28324765.2023.2220358

Stephens, N. M. (2010). A cultural mismatch: The experience of first-generation college students in elite universities (Order No. 3395857). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global; Social Science Premium Collection. (305209808). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED513420

Marianny Arias is a junior studying forensic psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. She is currently enrolled in the ADAP FMHC dual degree program, which leads to a master's in forensic mental health counseling. Upon completing her master's, she plans to pursue a PhD in clinical psychology. In her free time, Marianny enjoys traveling and spending time with her family.

Dear Eligible Psi Chi Member,

Have you recently been approved by a local chapter advisor to join Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology? Congratulations!

The hard part is now officially behind you—You’ve demonstrated academic excellence and commitment to psychology through high grades in your college courses.

Completing the process to join is now just a simple final step to transform your hard work into a lifetime professional asset. Check your email for instructions to complete your membership payment on the official Psi Chi Store website. All legitimate payments to Psi Chi are collected on our official website store at https://store.psichi.org.

Here’s why Psi Chi is worth it, now and for years to come.

1. One Low-Cost Payment. Lifetime Membership.

Did you know: Psi Chi membership is for life.

Unlike many professional organizations, HQ does not require renewal fees, annual dues, or future payments—just a single, one‑time membership fee that supports you throughout your academic and professional journey, even long after graduation.

We understand students are balancing many financial priorities. That’s why Psi Chi has not increased the membership fee in nearly a decade. The low cost reflects our commitment to accessibility, value, and student support.

2. Psi Chi Offers Lifelong Resumé Value

As you know, acquiring educational degrees, certifications, and professional experiences requires a lot of time and usually a lot of money too. Comparatively, completing the process to join Psi Chi will result in one of the quickest and most affordable lines on your entire resumé.

Then, from the moment you receive our “Congratulations, New Psi Chi Member!” email after you pay, you can begin using your membership to showcase your academic strengths. Add Psi Chi to your resumé and

• CV and LinkedIn profile
• Graduate school applications
• Job and internship applications

There is no required time commitment after you join. But of course, we hope you’ll consider diving into member benefits and leadership experiences! :)

3. Opportunities You Can Only Access as a Member

Take a peek at our latest digital magazine issue. What would a subscription to a niche career-oriented publication like that typically cost—$10 per year? $20?

With Psi Chi membership, you will receive professionally relevant content delivered to your inbox for life. This single benefit is worth more than the entire lifetime membership fee, and that is only the tip of the iceberg.

Psi Chi members can also access:

• Scholarships and research grants
• Awards and recognitions
• Local and global leadership and service opportunities
• Ability to apply for job openings on our Career Center
• Ability to submit your research to Psi Chi Journal

These are resources you simply can’t access without completing membership. Many more benefits also come and go over the years, such as live educational events and annual discounts and partnerships with psychology-related organizations.

4. A Community That Reflects Your Values

Psi Chi is built around values that many psychology students care deeply about:

• Supporting mental health
• Advancing psychological science
• Giving back through service and leadership

We don’t just state these values—we actively live them. To see how, visit: “Want to Know Psi Chi? Look at Our Values—and How We Live Them.”

5. Ongoing Connection, Even After Graduation

As a member, you’ll be encouraged to wear stylish Psi Chi Regalia to celebrate your graduation and the conclusion of your undergraduate or graduate journey. But remember: Graduation doesn’t mean goodbye! Psi Chi members continue to benefit from:

• Online communities
• Professional networking
• Career and graduate school resources

Psi Chi is more than a line on your resumé. It is a resource that you can keep using for life. Complete your membership today by following the payment link in your email to the Psi Chi Store. We’d love to welcome you, honor your achievements, and connect you to our lifelong global community of psychology students and professionals.

Additional Resources and Testimonials

• American Psychological Association: What Is Psi Chi Membership Worth to You?
• Psi Chi Website: Benefits of Membership
• ACHS: Our Certified Honor Societies
• President’s Message: The Transformative Effect of the Psi Chi Community
• Testimonial: Meet John, One of Psi Chi’s First-Ever Scholarship Recipients
• PsychEverywhere Podcast: Making the Most of Psi Chi

“Magic is merely the mind's attempt to wrap itself around the impossible”

– Madame Morrible, Wicked (2024)

Magic in popular culture is often portrayed as being deeply intertwined with emotion, especially in moments of intense stress or passion. When magical characters experience strong feelings (such as anger, fear, or excitement) their powers tend to surge out of control or become dramatically more potent. This connection mirrors real psychological and physiological processes: in high-arousal situations, the sympathetic nervous system triggers the body’s “fight-or-flight” response, increasing heart rate, respiration, and perspiration (Cannon, 1914, 1915). Just as heightened activation fuels physical and emotional responses, it also symbolically fuels magical energy in fiction. Across many stories and traditions, emotions serve as the catalyst for magic, emphasizing that power is not purely intellectual or technical, but something that emerges from the raw, unfiltered depths of human feeling.

What Is Emotion?

This is a difficult question to answer: Emotion researchers don’t have a universal, agreed-upon definition. The best way to describe emotion seems to be that it is a mental state that feels urgent and motivates us to act. Emotions help shape how we relate to our environment and other people. For example, when we love someone, we want to keep that bond. Or when we are angry, we want to change the situation or make things right. And when we’re sad, we focus inward when we lose someone or to remember something that mattered to us.

Broadly speaking, there are two major theories of emotions. The first was developed by William James and Carl Lange in the early part of the 20th century (James & Lange, 1922). They argued that emotion was the result of physiological changes in the body; for example, when you see a bear barreling toward you, you might begin to tremble. The James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that this trembling occurs well before you are consciously aware of it, which means it needs to be interpreted. In this case, the trembling is interpreted as the emotion we would label “fear.” On the other side of the emotion debate lies the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, which suggests that, while the physiological response does occur in much the same way as it is described in the James-Lange theory, conscious awareness of the feeling occurs simultaneously. This essentially means that we experience the cognitive labeling of fear at the same time we begin to tremble, with both of these experiences generated from a brain region deep inside the brain called the hypothalamus (Cannon, 1927).

These are not the only two theories of emotion; numerous other perspectives have been developed over the years (see here for an overview; Cherry, 2024). However, modern conceptions of emotion tend to agree more strongly with Cannon’s conception, that emotions are interpreted by several outputs of brain activity rather than merely responding to external stimuli that causes a “fight-or-flight” response. It is also important to note that emotions are a complex interplay with brain activity, sympathetic nervous system activation that doesn’t include the brain, and our own preconceptions of the meaning of various emotions (e.g., fear, joy, anger, or surprise). Taken together, these processes show that emotions influence not just how we feel from one moment to the next, but also how we understand ourselves and others. This makes it especially intriguing to investigate the link between magic and emotion in popular culture.

The Link Between Emotion and Magic

The link between emotion and magic can be conceptualized in many different ways. First, imagining emotion as the fuel for magic emphasizes how the intensity and direction of one’s feelings can power and control magical effects, much like strong emotion drives real-life action or creativity. This view suggests that having agency over emotion (whether through mastery or loss of control) translates directly into power over one’s magic, making emotion both the source and the regulator of magical force. Alternatively, reimagining emotion as a form of magic frames magic as a unique expression or embodiment of emotion which some people can outwardly manifest (aka those with magical powers). Yet another perspective is that emotion triggers magic, meaning that intense feelings directly set magical effects into motion. Ultimately, viewing magic through the lens of emotion (whether as its driving fuel or as its very essence) invites a deeper reflection on how human feelings can empower, transform, or even redefine what seems possible in both fantasy and real life.

Popular culture provides countless examples of the powerful connection between magic and emotion. In the Harry Potter series, magic often bursts forth when Harry is under duress, especially during moments of fear or anger, such as the memorable scene where he inflates his Aunt Marge. This is particularly true early on in the series before he learns to control his powers (Rowling, 1997-2007). In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Wanda Maximoff’s reality-warping powers intensify in response to profound grief and trauma, most notably after losing Vision, demonstrating how volatile emotions can shape and magnify magical physical strength (Russo & Russo, 2018). In the TV show Stranger Things, Eleven’s psychokinetic abilities surge during high-stress moments fueled by fear or rage, showing a direct link between her emotional state and supernatural force (Duffer & Duffer, 2016-present; Camacho & Swirsky, 2025). Elsa’s ice powers in Disney’s Frozen visually mirror her inner feelings—her control and creativity vanish when anxiety and fear take over, unleashing chaos… and an unending winter (Buck & Lee, 2013). Likewise, Elphaba in Wicked demonstrates a clear link between her emotions and her magic, with her powers often emerging when she is mocked by her peers, senses her sister is in danger, or feels provoked by Madam Morrible (Chu, 2024). Across these stories, emotion is not merely a side effect of magic but often its core source, transforming feeling into energy and revealing how deeply human experience drives our reactions, whether supernatural or otherwise.

Magic, Emotion, and Gender

Across popular culture, the portrayal of emotion-fueled magic often reflects gendered assumptions about emotional expression, control, and power. While this may not seem significant at first glass, these gendered differences in the perception and control of emotion and magic actually shape real-world outcomes, reinforcing and perpetuating societal and psychological patterns in how emotions (and one’s control over them… or lack thereof) are judged, expressed, and managed.

As discussed earlier, magic often surges with emotion; but this trend is disproportionately seen among female characters. This pattern reinforces cultural stereotypes that portray women as governed by feeling rather than reason (Plant et al., 2000), framing their magical strength as beautiful yet volatile when unchecked. Even more alarming is that, for women, emotional (or magical) outbursts often evoke shame as they align with long-standing cultural stereotypes that echo outdated notions of the hysterical woman (DePrince, 2023). Elsa’s retreat to the North Mountain after her powers are revealed during her coronation embodies this sense of shame, as she isolates herself to avoid further judgment and humiliation (Buck & Lee, 2013; Kapllanaj & Swirsky, 2025). Similarly, Elphaba’s public loss of control over her magic in front of her peers at Shiz marks her as volatile and “weird,” immediately leading to embarrassment and shame. These examples powerfully demonstrate that, for women, the aftermath of visible emotional or magical intensity is seldom just external consequence—it is often an enduring internal burden shaped by societal perceptions of acceptable female behavior.

Male characters, in contrast, are rarely depicted as losing control of their magical abilities. They are shown as disciplined wielders of power, channeling their magic through intellect, composure, or spiritual mastery. Emotional suppression is not just expected but rewarded, with control celebrated as a hallmark of true masculinity (Courtenay, 2000; Roman, 2024). This control symbolizes authority and balance, reflecting societal expectations that link masculinity with restraint, rationality, and emotional control (Kerr, 2021). Characters such as Gandalf (Tolkien, 1954), Professor Dumbledore (Rowling, 1997-2007), Professor X (Lee & Kirby, 1963), Yoda (Lucas, 1977), and King Triton (The Little Mermaid; Clements & Musker, 1989) embody this ideal: their power is rational, deliberate, and grounded in intellectual or spiritual strength rather than emotional outbursts. Even under great stress, their restraint reinforces the association of magical mastery with emotional control, contrasting with the often emotionally volatile depiction of women’s magic.

What is fascinating about this portrayal is that, in theory, a man who loses control of his magic should face harsher condemnation than a woman, given that society expects women to exhibit emotional volatility. A man who displays such a loss of control deviates from cultural norms that associate masculinity with rationality and self-regulation. It is therefore somewhat paradoxical that women are shamed for doing the very thing that society expects them to do. However, the “out of control male” is not punished—not because such deviation from gender norms is tolerated, but rather because it seldom happens to male characters to begin with. One notable exception is Harry Potter, who does display emotional and magical outbursts; but is spared from social ridicule due to his “hero status” (Rowling, 1997-2007). Instead, emotional volatility in popular culture is disproportionately assigned to female characters, who are then punished for it, reinforcing and perpetuating restrictive gender stereotypes through storytelling.

It should also be noted that there are certainly exceptions to these gendered narratives of emotions and magic. For example, the cool control of female characters like Hermione Granger and Minerva McGonagall (Rowling, 1997-2007) is an unusual portrayal of female restraint. This article is not intended to be exhaustive, and there will always be those who challenge the norms. However, these gendered portrayals sustain cultural narratives about who is permitted to feel and what those feelings can look like. For children and others who consume these stories, such portrayals can have very real implications: they shape young viewers' understanding of acceptable emotional expressions and reinforce restrictive gender norms that can limit their self-expression, emotional development, and perceptions of personal power (Ward & Grower, 2020). These narratives can influence how children internalize feelings of strength and control, as well as feelings of shame at any potential loss of control.

Conclusion

Ultimately, the connection between magic and emotion in popular culture offers more than just fantasy—it reflects deeper societal beliefs about gender, power, and emotional expression. These narratives teach audiences (who are often children or teenagers) how different kinds of emotional behavior are valued, feared, or punished depending on who displays them. Female characters are often celebrated for emotional depth yet criticized when those emotions spiral into chaos, while male figures are applauded for mastery and discipline, rarely burdened by the same expectations of emotional containment. This dynamic reveals how cultural myths about magic may reinforce real-world ideas about gendered behavior. By examining how emotion-fueled magic is portrayed across beloved stories, we can uncover some of the ways popular media mirrors our collective assumptions about identity, strength, and control, as well as consider how challenging these portrayals might allow for more balanced, human depictions of both magic and emotion.

References

Buck, C. & Lee, J. (Directors). (2013). Frozen [Film]. Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.

Camacho, S. & Swirsky, J. M. (2025). The upside down world of adolescent development in Stranger Things. Psi-Chi-ology Lab, 9. https://www.psichi.org/blogpost/987366/509420/The-Upside-Down-World-of-Adolescent-Development-in-Stranger-Things

Cannon, W. B. (1914). The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions. American Journal of Physiology, 33(2), 356–372. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1914.33.2.356

Cannon, W. B. (1915). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Cannon, W. B. (1927). The James-Lange theory of emotions: A critical examination and an alternative theory. The American Journal of Psychology, 39(1/4), 106–124. https://doi.org/10.2307/1415404

Chu, S. (Director). (2024). Wicked [Film]. Universal Pictures.

Cherry, K. (June 22, 2024). The 6 major theories of emotion. Psychology Today. https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-emotion-2795717

Clements, R., & Musker, J. (Directors). (1989). The Little Mermaid. [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures.

Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277/9536(99)00390_1

DePrince, A. P. (March 15, 2023). The history of hysteria in women’s lives. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/from-awareness-to-action/202303/the-history-of-hysteria-in-womens-lives

Duffer, M., & Duffer, R. (Creators). (2016–present). Stranger Things [TV series]. 21 Laps Entertainment; Monkey Massacre; Netflix.

Kapllanaj, A. & Swirsky, J.M. (2025, Spring). Conceal, don't feel: Exploring emotional experiences in Disney's Frozen. Eye on Psi Chi, 29(3), 16–17. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.Eye29.3.16

Kerr, A.D. (2021). Emotions, Rationality, and Gender. In Leal Filho, W., Marisa Azul, A., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (Eds.), Gender Equality. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95687-9_106

James, W., & Lange, C. G. (1922). The emotions. Williams & Wilkins Co.

Lee, S. (Writer), & Kirby, J. (Artist). (1963). X-Men (Vol. 1). Marvel Comics.

Lucas, G. (Director). (1977). Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope [Film]. Lucasfilm.

Plant, E. A., Hyde, J. S., Keltner, D., & Devine, P. G. (2000). The gender stereotyping of emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01024.x

Roman, D. F. (2024). Emotions and masculinities. RAIS Journal for Social Sciences, 8(2). https://journal.rais.education/index.php/raiss/article/view/243/198

Rowling, J. K. (1997–2007). Harry Potter series [7 volumes]. Scholastic.

Russo, A., & Russo, J. (Directors). (2018). Avengers: Infinity War [Film]. Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.

Swirsky, J. M. (2023). Along the yellow brick road: Psychology in Wicked. Psi-Chi-ology Lab Blog, 5. https://www.psichi.org/blogpost/987366/382190/Along-the-Yellow-Brick-Road-Psychology-in-Wicked

Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Lord of the Rings (C. S. Lewis, Ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Ward, L. M., & Grower, P. (2020). Media and the development of gender role stereotypes. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 2(1), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-051120010630

Alexander B. Swan, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois. His teaching and research focus on cognitive psychology, particularly memory, reasoning, and cognitive biases—especially how these processes shape pseudoscientific beliefs and everyday decision-making. He also explores the intersection of psychology and film, both in his CinemaPsych Podcast and through innovative classroom projects that use movies to illuminate psychological concepts. When he’s not grading papers or editing podcast episodes, Dr. Swan enjoys watching movies with his family, experimenting with new teaching tech, and trying (with mixed success) to keep up with his kids’ latest pop culture obsessions. You can follow him on BlueSky, Threads, YouTube, or email him at aswan@eureka.edu.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The movie Mrs. Doubtfire tells the story of Daniel Hillard, a father who, after losing custody of his children in a divorce, disguises himself as an elderly British nanny to spend time with his three children (14-year-old Lydia, 12-year-old Chris, and 5-year-old Natalie; Columbus, 1993). Although all three struggle to cope with their parent’s divorce and the subsequent changes to the family structure, Natalie seems more adaptable and resilient compared to her older siblings. While there are a lot of individual differences in resilience, one explanation for Natalie’s experience could be due (at least in part) to her age. At 5-years-old, Natalie falls into the stage of early childhood, typically defined as ages 2-6, and characterized by changes in social, physical, and cognitive development (Berger, 2024). Throughout the movie, Natalie displays many examples of key milestones from the developmental stage of early childhood.

Parenting Style: Permissive & Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style refers to the approach a parent takes to raising their child, including the way they guide, interact with, and respond to the behavior being shown by their child (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022). There are four broad parenting style categories that represent the intersections of high and low warmth and high and low control: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and neglectful (Baumrind, 1966). Each style involves a distinct set of behaviors and, and is accompanied by a pattern of developmental outcomes for the child’s development.

Permissive parenting (high warmth, low control) is lenient parenting with few boundaries or consistent rules and limited structure. These parents are more interested in being friends than parents, allowing their children to have a lot of freedom, and placing few, if any, expectations or demands on them (Berger, 2019). In the beginning of the movie Daniel hosts a wild birthday party for his son, allowing chaos to unfold as children run freely around the house (Columbus, 1993, 8:32). When their mother returns home from work, she walks in to find the house in disarray. While just one example, this party is representative of Daniel’s permissive parenting style, as the party clearly had no rules or boundaries. Permissive parenting is often associated with both positive and negative developmental outcomes. Parents give children a lot of freedom to make their own choices with little guidance. As a result, these children often develop good self-esteem and social skills but may struggle with impulsivity and self-control (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022).

The other high warmth style is authoritative parenting, differentiated from permissive parenting because there is also high control. This parenting style involves clear limits and expectations, but there is also a lot of support. Although Daniel was permissive, as Mrs. Doubtfire he exhibits a far more authoritative style, saying, "I know you're used to loosey-goosey, but I run a much tighter ship” (Columbus, 1993, 52:47). At first, the children are surprised by this shift in boundaries, as seen by their shocked faces when the remote was tossed in the fish bowl after Lydia refuses to complete her homework before watching tv, arguing that they always watch Dick Van Dyke after school (Columbus, 1993, 52:41). Mrs. Doubtfire replies saying, “When I’m in charge, you will follow a schedule. Those who do not follow this schedule will be punished” (Columbus, 1993, 52:59). While she is still enforcing boundaries, she says this in a calm, warm tone of voice, implying that although there are clear expectations, she still treats the children with respect and wants to support them. This balance of being structured but still warm and trustworthy makes the children more inclined to accept this parenting style.

Eventually the family falls into a new routine, including both better behavior and improved grades. This is consistent with research showing that children raised by authoritative parents typically excel not only academically, but also show higher levels of self esteem and confidence (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022). As the children become more familiar with Mrs. Doubtfire, they are clearly more relaxed in the nanny’s presence. This warmth and comfort may also foster a sense of emotional safety and acceptance, allowing the children to express themselves freely without fear of judgment (also a hallmark of children of authoritative parents; Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022). Overall, both permissive and authoritative parenting styles offer high warmth towards children, but their approach to discipline is very different and therefore creates very different outcomes. Daniel’s shift from permissive to authoritative parenting in Mrs. Doubtfire highlights how warmth combined with structure results in healthy emotional and social development in children.

Erikson Psychosocial Stages of Development: Initiative Versus Guilt

Children’s environments can have an impact on the child's ability to understand and regulate their feelings, also known as emotional regulation (Berger, 2024). This includes their ability to manage and cope with emotional experiences internally, and while their facial expressions may show the emotion, they learn how to contain these emotions in a way that avoids emotional outbursts. This concept connects back to Erik Erikson, who theorized that each developmental stage in life corresponds to a challenge that must be overcome. If we are successful in overcoming the challenge, they will feel a sense of accomplishment, but if not, it may result in a sense of self-doubt or guilt (Erikson, 1950).

Natalie is in the third stage of Erikson’s theory, known as initiative versus guilt. In this stage, children learn how to take control over their actions and make their own decisions through trial and error (Cherry, 2025). In Mrs. Doubtfire, Natalie demonstrates this stage through her developing sense of independence and self-control. For example, when Daniel loses his temper when her mother arrives early to take the children home, Natalie looks scared but remains calm. Instead of reacting with an outburst, she demonstrates her ability to take control of her actions even when things are tense (Columbus, 1993, 26:38). This example highlights Natalie's growing confidence and ability to take initiative, which are key characteristics of Erikson’s initiative versus guilt stage.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: The Preoperational Stage

Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development explains that the way children think is shaped by their experiences and will change over time as they grow and gain new experiences (Piaget, 1952). A stage theorist, Piaget identified four distinct stages of cognitive development, each with their own characteristic ways of thinking, reasoning, and understanding the world — ranging from the sensorimotor stage of infancy where knowledge is gained through sensory experiences, to the formal operational stage of adolescence where abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges. These stages represent qualitative shifts in cognitive abilities and occur in a fixed sequence as children mature and interact with their environment (McLeod, 2025a).

Natalie is currently in the preoperational stage, which occurs between the ages of two and six. During this stage, children begin to use their imagination and engage in pretend play, also called symbolic thinking (Berger, 2019). They may believe that inanimate objects have feelings or emotions and are not yet able to understand or explain things logically. One component of the preoperational stage is egocentrism, the tendency of young children to view the world from their own point of view (Berger, 2019). It isn’t out of selfishness, but rather because they haven’t yet developed the cognitive ability to understand viewpoints different from their own (McLeod, 2024).

Natalie demonstrates egocentrism in various scenes throughout the movie. For instance, when her father was leaving the house after the divorce, she told him he couldn’t leave yet because they didn’t get to finish Charlotte's Web (Columbus, 1993, 16:58). She wasn’t able to view the situation from her father’s perspective, but rather, was solely focused on her own plans, which in the grand scheme of things, was insignificant compared to everything else going on at the time. Another example is when Natalie's older sister asked how her day at school was. Natalie responds by proudly sharing her own personal achievement saying that school was good because she drew a picture and her teacher said it looked good (Columbus, 1993, 51:58). Rather than asking about her sister's day, she was focused on her own accomplishment, which although may seem selfish, is actually common behavior for a child of Natalie’s age. These moments reflect the cognitive limitations common in early childhood, which gradually shift towards a more mature way of thinking as children age.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, developed by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1970s, emphasizes that people learn by observing others in their environment (McLeod, 2025b). While this theory applies to all ages, children are especially influenced by watching their parents and caregivers (Berger, 2019). Through social modeling, children pick up behaviors, language, and social norms by imitating others (Nickerson, 2024). For young children, observing and copying adults is a crucial way to learn social skills and understand what’s acceptable. For example, Natalie often repeats her father’s words. In one particularly memorable moment, she yelled “we’re his goddamn kids too” shortly after Daniel says it, even though she may not fully understand its meaning (Columbus, 1993 28:25). She also laughs at her father’s jokes and mimics his playful gestures. When her father disguises himself as Mrs. Doubtfire, Natalie mirrors the character’s politeness and courtesy around the house, unaware of his identity (Columbus, 1993 53:24). These examples illustrate how children learn and develop socially and emotionally through observation and imitation during early childhood.

Conclusion

Overall, Natalie's character in Mrs. Doubtfire depicts several of the main features of early childhood development, including differences in parenting styles and several of the big constructs of development including egocentrism, emotion regulation, social modeling, and theory of mind. Her laughter with her father, repeating his phrases, and modeling his behaviors show the importance of warm parenting and the effect of positive role models on young children's development. Her actions are consistent with those of a typical young child of her age, and although her grammar may not be perfect every time, it is all part of learning, which is a big part of child development.

References

Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126611

Berger, K. S. (2024). The developing person through childhood & adolescence. Macmillan Learning US.

Cherry, K. (2025, February 7). Initiative vs. guilt: Psychosocial stage 3. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/initiative-versus-guilt-2795737

Columbus, C. (Director). (1993). Mrs. Doubtfire [Film]. Twentieth Century Fox.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W W Norton & Co.

McLeod, S. (2024, January 24). Piaget’s preoperational stage (ages 2 7). Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperational.html

McLeod, S. (2025a, October 22). Piaget’s theory and stages of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

McLeod, S. (2025b, October 16). Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html

Nickerson, C. (2024, February 2). Observational learning in psychology. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-observational-learning.html

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (M. Cook, Trans.). W. W. Norton & Company. (Original work published 1936)

Sanvictores, T., & Mendez, M. D. (2022). Types of parenting styles and effects on children. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568743/

Kylie Duggan is currently a fourth-year student studying biology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After graduating, she plans on applying to and attending Physician Assistant school and hopes to one day specialize in orthopedics. In her free time, Kylie enjoys long beach days, walks with her goldendoodle (Sadie), and spending time with family and friends.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

• Advisor Support
  Over 150 chapter advisors attended virtual meetups throughout 2024–25, creating community across geographic and institutional boundaries. We sent 135 personalized advisor appreciation letters to administrators, with several faculty incorporating these letters into tenure and promotion materials. In its inaugural year, the Chapter Support Advisory Committee, chaired by Dr. Shawn Charlton, will broaden our understanding of how Psi Chi could better support faculty advisors.
   
• Alumni Networking
  We are also broadening ways to serve lifetime members. We piloted an innovative alumni networking event at SEPA, and our Alumni WhatsApp community continues growing with specialized subgroups such as alternative psych careers and clinical pathways.

In May 2009, the Disney/Pixar movie Up floated into theaters and hearts (Docter & Peterson, 2009). The story focuses on an elderly gentleman, Carl, who is grieving the loss of his wife (Ellie) and struggling to cope with his new reality. Carl and Ellie had lifelong dreams of moving to Paradise Falls in South America, yet life kept getting in the way. He eventually decides that there is no time like the present, and hatches a plan to float his entire house (which he symbolically associates with Ellie’s presence) to Paradise Falls. But when a young Wilderness Explorer, Russell, accidentally tags along for the ride, Carl finds himself with the choice of staying rooted in the past or adapting to the present moment. As the movie progresses, Carl and Russell (along with some friends they meet along the way) both begin to heal.

The approximately 5-minute opening montage in Up has become famous for beautifully depicting so much plot in such a short amount of time. We see Carl and Ellie meet as children, fall in love, marry, experience pregnancy loss/infertility, and generally go through some of the many ups and downs of life. The montage ends with Ellie’s death after an illness, leaving Carl alone to cope with her loss.

Loss and Grief

Loss is defined as the experience of losing someone or something that holds personal or emotional significance (O’connor, 2019). Grief is the feeling that follows loss, and can accompany any event that disrupts or challenges our sense of normalcy (Schoo et al., 2025). Although it is most commonly associated with death, grief can arise from many forms of loss (e.g., losing a relationship, a job, a sense of identity, a path not taken). It reflects the individual’s attempt to adjust to a new reality where something or someone that was once central is now absent. Grief can involve a complex mix of emotions, including sadness, anger, confusion, and even relief, and it often unfolds in waves rather than in a straight line. Ultimately, grief reminds us of our capacity for love, attachment, and meaning—showing that loss, even in its pain, connects us to what matters most (Guldin & Leget, 2024). In the movie Up, multiple characters experience loss and grief in various ways, which impacts their behavior and emotional responses throughout the film.

For Carl, the protagonist, his most obvious loss is his wife, Ellie. However, Carl is also anticipating the loss of his home, which holds all of their memories together and further symbolizes the life he and Ellie built together. In many ways, the house takes on symbolic meaning, representing Ellie herself, making it very hard for Carl to let go of. The tendency to cling to a symbolic object is actually fairly common after experiencing the loss of a loved one (Brazier, 2025). Thus, when the developers attempt to force Carl to move, he experiences another loss, revealing that everything that once had meaning in his life is being taken away from him. His resistance to leaving the house shows his attempts to cling on to the previous life he had with his wife, which is no longer a current reality.

Grief is not linear and can look different for those experiencing it. For example, grief led Carl to isolate himself from the world around him, as well as his refusal to change anything in the house after Ellie's passing. These behaviors are consistent with denial, the first stage of Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Grief (Kübler-Ross, 1969; Vallejo, 2025). In the denial stage, we may struggle to consciously or unconsciously acknowledge a loss. When we experience a loss, particularly if it’s sudden, we may feel like our world has turned upside down (Gupta, 2025). In the short-term after Ellie’s death, Carl clings fiercely to his previous life (for a more thorough description of the Kübler-Ross Stages of Grief in Up, see Bilicich & Swirsky, 2025).

Eight-year-old Russell is grieving a loss, though not one marked by death or finality. His parents’ separation and his father’s emotional distance have created a deep sense of absence in his young life—one that is confusing and painful because the person he longs for still exists but feels unreachable. Russel explains how his dad was too busy to help him with earning badges (0:11:54, Docter & Peterson, 2009). This loss challenges Russell’s understanding of relationships and belonging. His efforts to earn his “Assisting the Elderly” badge are not just about fulfilling a Wilderness Explorer goal; they are a subconscious attempt to find connection and validation that he no longer receives at home. When he meets Carl, Russell’s persistent kindness and desire to bond reflect a child’s effort to rebuild emotional safety after feeling neglected (another form of loss).

Charles Muntz, the once-famed and now disgraced explorer who young Carl and Ellie idolised, also displays loss. For him, this profound, yet less recognized, kind of loss is rooted in ego, identity, and time rather than in relationships. Once admired as a pioneering explorer and scientist, Charles faces the slow erosion of his reputation when the scientific community discredits his discoveries. This loss of credibility eats away at his sense of purpose, leaving him clinging desperately to the past. His obsession with proving himself right becomes a way to deny the passage of time and the loss of his youth. Even his scientific curiosity, once driven by wonder, deteriorates into obsession and paranoia. Though he hasn’t lost a loved one, Charles’s losses—of recognition, vitality, and integrity—leave him equally consumed by grief, illustrating that loss can take many forms beyond death.

Thus, Up paints a picture of different forms of loss, demonstrating that grief is highly personal and can affect people in very different ways. Carl responds by clinging to his house, Russell by seeking new bonds, and Charles by trying to hold onto the vestiges of past prestige. Whether it involves death, relationships, losing something you love, or missing a piece of your life, these characters vividly portray the complexities of loss and grief.

Healing and Growth

In ideal situations, loss is followed by healing. In fact, the final step of Kübler Ross’s Stages of Grief is acceptance, where we come to terms with the loss and coping becomes more bearable (Gupta, 2025; Kübler-Ross, 1969). Although Up shows many examples of loss and grieving, there are also many examples of the healing and growth which can follow.

Although Carl is initially resistant to forming a relationship with Russell, he gradually begins to let the boy into his life. Early on in the movie, Carl treats Russell as an annoyance, shutting the door in his face when Russell comes to earn his “assisting the elderly” badge and later grumbling about him as unwanted “baggage” when the house lifts off (Docter & Peterson, 2009). As their journey continues, however, Carl begins to care for Russell in small but meaningful ways: Sharing food with him around the campfire, listening to Russell talk about his absent father, and adjusting Russell’s blanket while he sleeps. By the time they reach Paradise Falls, Carl’s priorities have changed. Carl begins to realize that the house is not the only way he can honor Ellie’s memory: For example, telling Russell “You know, it’s just a house” (Docter & Peterson, 1:19:00). Instead of single-mindedly focusing on placing the house by the waterfall as a tribute to Ellie (Carl’s original plan), he ultimately chooses to rescue Russell from Muntz, literally letting go of the house (and his rigid clinging to the past) to save the boy. Through his bond with Russell, Carl moves from loneliness and grief toward a new adventure, demonstrating that healing after loss often involves opening oneself to new relationships rather than relinquishing love for the person who is gone (Vilauer, 2025).

Russell enters the story as a lonely Wilderness Explorer desperate for connection and recognition, particularly from his absent father. His enthusiasm masks a deeper ache—he volunteers to assist Carl partly to earn his final badge, but also to fill an emotional void. Yet by the end, Russell experiences profound healing through Carl’s growing paternal care: When Carl chooses to rescue him over his house, it affirms Russell’s worth in a way his father never has. In the final scene, as Carl attends his badge ceremony, pins the badge on his sash (transforming it into an “Ellie badge”), and joins him curbside counting cars over ice cream, Russell beams with unfiltered joy (1:34:23, Docter & Peterson, 2009). This new grandfatherly bond allows Russell to grow from a needy, badge-chasing boy into someone secure in belonging, showing how mutual vulnerability and chosen family can mend the wounds of parental absence.

Muntz represents a stark contrast to Carl and Russell’s journeys through loss and grief into healing. Unlike Carl, who learns to release his grief and embrace new bonds, or Russell, who finds security through chosen family, Muntz remains rigidly anchored to his past glory, refusing vulnerability or change even in his final moments. During the climactic dirigible chase, as he pursues Carl and Russell with murderous intent, Muntz plummets to his death through the collapsing wreckage (1:24:34, Docter & Peterson, 2009). This end offers no redemption or emotional restoration; instead, it underscores a failed growth, where Muntz confronts the ruin of his choices too late, dying as a cautionary figure whose refusal to heal perpetuates harm to the end. Some emotional baggage is stronger compared to others, which may help explain why some people are able to ultimately achieve healing and growth, while others are not (Hulbert & Anderson, 2018).

Conclusion

The movie Up represents a psychological narrative that is centered around how loss and grief (in all its many forms) can affect the human experience. Carl embodies grief through his fixation on the house as a shrine to Ellie, rejecting new bonds like Russell's until he releases it to save the boy, thereby honoring her memory by embracing life. Russell illustrates loss from his father's emotional absence, finding solace in Carl's companionship that fills the relational void and fosters mutual healing. Charles Muntz, by contrast, exemplifies destructive grief, as his obsessive grip on past fame isolates him and breeds hostility toward others who challenge his stagnation. Although this film is commonly seen as a children's movie, it masterfully explores profound themes of loss, grief, and healing through its characters' journeys, offering timeless lessons for audiences of all ages.

References

Hulbert, J. C., & Anderson, M. C. (2018). What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger: Psychological trauma and its relationship to enhanced memory control. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 147(12), 1931–1949. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000461

Brazier, B. (2023, June 17). The use of transitional objects in mourning. Lost Stories Counseling Services. https://www.loststoriescounselingservices.com/blog/donald-winnicott-and-transitional-objects-as-linking-objects-in-mourning

Bilicich, K., & Swirsky, J. M. (2025, August 15). Up and away: A psychological adventure of personal growth. Psi Chi Pop Culture Corner Blog, 9. https://www.psichi.org/blogpost/987366/513154/Up-and-Away-A-Psychological-Adventure-of-Personal-Growth

Docter, P. (Director). (2009). Up. [Film]. Pixar Animation Studio.

Guldin, M. B., & Leget, C. (2024). The integrated process model of loss and grief - An interprofessional understanding. Death Studies, 48(7), 738–752. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2023.2272960

Gupta, S. (2025, December 7). What to know about the denial stage of grief. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/the-denial-stage-of-grief-characteristics-and-coping-5272456

Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. Macmillan.

O’Connor, M. F. (2019). Grief: A brief history of research on how the body, mind, and brain adapt. Biopsychosocial Science and Medicine, 81(8), 731–738. https://doi.org/doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000717

Schoo, C., Azhar, Y., Mughal, S., & Rout, P. (2025). Grief and prolonged grief disorder. StatPearls.

Vallejo, M. (2025, June 20). What is the denial stage of grief? Mental Health Center Kids. https://mentalhealthcenterkids.com/blogs/articles/denial-stage-of-grief

Aila Kapllanaj is a second-year, second-semester, college student at Holy Family University originally from Albania, majoring in biochemistry and wants to ultimately pursue a career in healthcare in the future. Besides being a college student, she enjoys intellectually stimulating activities, and hanging out with friends and family.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Few stories are as universally recognized as Cinderella—the tale of a beautiful and kind young woman forced into servitude by her evil stepmother and ugly stepsisters. With the help of her fairy godmother, Cinderella eventually finds her way to the royal ball where she falls in love with Prince Charming. Although Disney’s iconic 1950 animated film popularized the tale for modern audiences, the story’s origins reach back to the 17th century, specifically to Charles Perrault’s Cendrillon, ou la petite pantoufle de verre (“Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper”). Building on the enduring appeal of the fairy tale, Rodgers and Hammerstein created a musical adaptation for television, first airing in 1957 with Julie Andrews in the title role, followed by the 1965 version starring Lesley Ann Warren and Stuart Damon, and the celebrated 1997 adaptation featuring Brandy and Whitney Houston (just to name a few). Each retelling offers its own unique interpretation, highlighting different values, character dynamics, and psychological themes that reflect the era and audience for which it was created.

This article considers some of the many psychological themes woven throughout the beloved fairytale as presented in the 1997 film adaptation. What distinguishes this version from the many others is its groundbreaking, color-blind, multiracial casting: featuring Brandy (Cinderella), Whitney Houston (Fairy Godmother), Whoopi Goldberg (Queen Constantina), Bernadette Peters (stepmother), Victor Garber (King Maximillian), and Paolo Montalban (Prince Charming). By depicting families of different races living together seamlessly and without comment, the film creates an inclusive fairy tale world that feels accessible to a broader audience. This innovative casting quietly challenged traditional notions of who can embody classic roles, offering a fresh perspective that honors the original story while making it newly relevant for contemporary viewers. In doing so, the 1997 retelling of Cinderella subtly yet powerfully underscores the importance of diversity, acceptance, and celebrating differences within a timeless narrative. It also presents myriad opportunities to consider how psychological themes are present in “the sweetest story ever told” (Geronimi et al., 1950).

Sibling Dynamics

Most retellings of Cinderella present sibling rivalry as a central theme. Unlike some versions that include her father (e.g., Ever After; Tennant, 1998), the Rodgers and Hammerstein story starts after his death, emphasizing Cinderella’s isolation as she is left in the “care” of her stepmother and two stepsisters. She is treated like a servant, subjected to abuse, belittlement, and degradation from all three women. Psychologically, this portrayal offers a striking, though admittedly somewhat exaggerated, example of sibling rivalry, showcasing the competition, jealousy, and emotional tensions common in all families, but blended families in particular. The stepsisters compete not only for material comforts and attention but also for social status and the prince’s favor, illustrating the classic psychological theme of siblings contending for limited resources and approval (Marano, 2010). Although media often idealizes the “perfect family,” sibling rivalry is a widespread phenomenon that can begin as early as age three (Psychology Today, n.d.).

This rivalry is intensified by the stepmother’s favoritism toward her own daughters, leaving Cinderella marginalized and reinforcing her feelings of exclusion and low self-worth. Psychologists such as Bruno Bettelheim have argued that the story of Cinderella resonates with children’s unconscious fears and desires related to sibling rivalry, as the protagonist’s degradation and perseverance mirror the internal struggles many children experience when they feel overshadowed by siblings (1967). The stepsisters’ hostility likely stems from jealousy and a longing for acceptance, while Cinderella’s resilience and optimism illustrate how individuals can learn to cope with adversity within family dynamics. Notably, even with their material advantages, the stepsisters are deeply envious of Cinderella, a sentiment highlighted in the song “Stepsisters’ Lament.” This number reveals that, beneath their superficial attitudes, the stepsisters recognize that Cinderella has inner qualities and strengths they do not possess. This song evokes rare sympathy for the stepsisters, offering insight (though not justification) for their behavior toward Cinderella through the well-documented psychological finding that “hurt people hurt people” (Ren et al., 2018).

Inner vs Outer Beauty

Another major theme in Cinderella is the interplay between inner and outer beauty. Although the story famously features Cinderella’s magical transformation where her humble attire is replaced with a dazzling gown and glass slippers that instantly captivates the prince (widely believed to be Walt Disney’s favorite piece of animation), this change doesn’t make her beautiful; rather, it reflects the beauty and strength she already possesses. Throughout the entire story, we see the contrast of a superficial obsession with appearance (as seen in the stepsisters and stepmother) with the enduring inner qualities that define Cinderella (kindness, hope, and resilience). We live in a society which fixates on, and rewards, physical attractiveness. Well-established psychological concepts like “pretty privilege” (the social advantages given to attractive people), “the halo effect” (the tendency to assume someone’s positive traits based on their looks), and the “beauty is good” stereotype (the belief that attractive people are inherently better or more virtuous) all highlight how physical attractiveness can lead to greater success. In fact, being considered attractive brings a range of benefits, including economic, social, and financial advantages (Alam, 2025). Given these dynamics, it’s not surprising that physical attractiveness is often seen as a highly valued trait—especially when considering the marital expectations for women in the late Victorian era (when Cinderella’s story is thought to take place). However, the story also emphasizes the idea that outer beauty is not the only, or even the most important, quality that defines a person. Instead, characteristics such as inner beauty, self-worth, and authenticity play a much greater role in building meaningful and lasting relationships (Amodeo, 2023).

Safe Spaces and Secure Bases

Cinderella’s harsh environment makes it crucial for her to find a safe space to escape her daily hardships. In healthy development, this sense of security is typically provided by a supportive person, what attachment theorists would describe as a secure base (a relationship or environment that offers emotional stability and enables individuals to explore, process emotions, and recover from stress; Bowlby, 1988). For Cinderella, who lacks a nurturing caregiver, her “chair in the corner,” as described in the song “In My Own Little Corner,” becomes her psychological refuge. This private space allows her to retreat into daydreams and imagine different identities and futures, bringing comfort and resilience. In the song’s opening lines: “I'm as mild and as meek as a mouse. When I hear a command I obey. But I know of a spot in my house. Where no one can stand in my way,” Cinderella reveals that, despite outward compliance, she has created a sanctuary where she feels in control. Her “spot in [the] house” is more than a physical location; it is a psychological haven where she can assert her identity and find solace. This self-created refuge helps her maintain autonomy and hope, illustrating how individuals can develop internal or symbolic safe spaces to regulate their emotions and foster resilience and well-being, even without external support (Bowlby, 1988).

It is worth noting that Cinderella appears remarkably well-adjusted despite the significant adversity she has faced, which serves as a reminder to approach fairy tales critically. In reality, children who grow up without a secure base (also known as having an insecure attachment style) are more likely to experience challenges later in life. For example, individuals with insecure attachments may struggle with forming and maintaining healthy relationships, experience difficulties regulating emotions, and face increased risks of anxiety and depression (Ainsworth, 1989; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2019). These difficulties highlight the importance of early emotional security in establishing long-term psychological well-being (for more information on attachment styles, check out this Psychology Today article).

Correlation vs Causation

During the royal ball where Cinderella (after being transformed by her fairy godmother) dances with the prince, the two proclaim their love through the song “Do I Love You Because You’re Beautiful?” In addition to being a charming duet, this song calls to mind the difference between correlation and causation within the realm of romantic attraction. In the song, both characters wonder whether their love is a response to each other’s physical beauty, or if their perception of beauty is actually shaped by the feelings of love they share. This distinction is an important one in psychological research: correlation refers to a relationship or association between two variables (such as love and beauty) where they tend to occur together (Jaffe, 2010). However, correlation alone does not indicate that one variable causes the other, just that they are related. Causation, by contrast, means that one variable directly produces a change in the other—such as love causing someone to perceive another as more beautiful, or beauty causing someone to fall in love.

The song’s lyrics cleverly capture this ambiguity, reflecting the classic warning that “correlation does not imply causation.” Just because love and beauty are linked does not mean that one necessarily leads to the other. Furthermore, the song hints at the concept of bidirectional effects, where two variables can influence each other simultaneously. In this case, it’s possible that being in love makes someone appear more beautiful to us, while at the same time, perceiving someone as beautiful may make us more likely to fall in love with them. This bidirectionality complicates our ability to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect—a challenge often encountered in psychological studies. Without careful experimental (comparing a control group with an experimental group) or longitudinal (data collected from the same participants over time) designs, it is impossible to establish the direction of causality, reminding us to be cautious when interpreting relationships between variables in both research and everyday life. Ultimately, Cinderella’s duet reminds us that, in both love and science, we must be careful not to mistake correlation for causation, and to recognize that relationships between variables can often be complex and bidirectional.

Conclusion

The 1997 adaptation of Cinderella is much more than a swirl of ball gowns, tiaras, and glass slippers. The complicated relationship between Cinderella and her stepsisters offers a peek into the messy, relatable world of sibling dynamics and the universal longing to belong … even if you’re not on the guest list for the royal ball. Viewed through the lens of attachment theory, Cinderella’s journey reveals how the absence of a secure base shapes her need to create an inner sanctuary: a powerful reminder of how essential psychological safe spaces are when supportive relationships are missing. Her resilience and unwavering hope in the face of adversity showcase the power of imagination and inner strength to overcome even the toughest circumstances. The film also takes a thoughtful look at beauty, pushing back against the idea that looks are everything by shining a light on authenticity and inner worth. By blending these meaningful themes with show-stopping musical numbers and a cast as diverse as the kingdom itself, the 1997 adaptation of Cinderella delivers more than just a fairy tale. It encourages us to believe in our own value, find hope in unexpected places, and remember that sometimes the most powerful magic comes from within. Now that’s a story worth trying on for size … even after the clock strikes midnight!

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44(4), 709–716. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709

Alam, N. (2025). The socioeconomics of pretty privilege. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/pop-culture-mental-health/202501/the-socioeconomics-of-pretty-privilege

Amodeo, J. (2023). What really makes us beautiful. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/intimacy-a-path-toward-spirituality/202303/what-really-makes-us-beautiful

Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy tales. Alfred A. Knopf.

Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.

Dubin, C. (Director), & Rodgers, R. (Executive Producer). (1965). Cinderella [Television broadcast]. CBS.

Geronimi, C., Jackson, W., & Luske, H. (Directors). (1950). Cinderella [Film]. Walt Disney Productions, RKO Radio Pictures.

Herskine, R. (Director), & Hammerstein, O., & Rodgers, R. (Writers). (1957). Cinderella [film]. CBS.

Iscove, R. (Director), & Hammerstein, O., & Rodgers, R. (Writers). (1997). Cinderella [film]. Walt Disney Television.

Jaffe, A. (2010). Correlation, causation, and association: What does it all mean? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-addiction/201003/correlation-causation-and-association-what-does-it-all-mean

Marano, H.E. (2010). Oh, brother! Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/201007/oh-brother

Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2019). Attachment orientations and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.006

Perrault, C. (1697). Cendrillon, ou la petite pantoufle de verre [Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper]. In Histoires ou contes du temps passé. Paris: Claude Barbin.

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Navigating sibling relationships. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/family-dynamics/sibling-relationships

Ren, D., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2018). Hurt people hurt people: Ostracism and aggression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.026

Tennant, A. (1998). (Director). Ever After. [film]. Fox Family Films.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

You and your kids might be familiar with the most popular film in Netflix’s history: K-Pop Demon Hunters (Kang & Appelhans, 2025). This animated musical juggernaut has captured the imaginations of young people around the globe. Like many animated films, K-Pop Demon Hunters has many lessons for young people. In this piece, we’ll analyze how the Huntrix group work as a team—specifically what they do well and what they need to improve upon as the film progresses.

Plot Basics

K-Pop Demon Hunters follows the supergroup Huntrix, comprised of Rumi, Mira, and Zoey: pop stars whose mission is to protect the earth from the demonic hordes of Gwi Ma. Huntrix represents your typical teenage female heroes who need to balance their roles as popstars and superheroes. At the beginning of the film the group is shown at their peak, effectively managing both roles. Huntrix finds themselves close to defeating the demons that plague the world by strengthening the Honmoon (or barrier) that protects the Earth from the demons. Their work as pop superstars and their connection with their fans is what strengthens the Honmoon and will bring about the end of the demon threat. They expect the release of their song Golden to make the Honmoon impenetrable and their struggle to do so is the inciting incident for the film.

When Is a Team a Team?

One might question whether a K-pop group is a team. Teams are defined as having (a) interdependence, (b) common goals or outcomes, and (c) coordinating actions and processes (Salas et al., 2015). By this definition, Huntrix is a team. They are responsible for producing songs and protecting people from demons. Their work is interdependent because they cannot produce songs or fight these demons on their own. Together they have coordinating processes and actions that they take in the music production and battle. While we may not think of musical groups as being teams, they often fulfill the criteria.

Team Tenure

In the beginning of the film, Huntrix had been working together for many years. Each group member has a unique personality and fulfills a different team role (in their capacities as both superheroes and pop stars). Rumi serves as the main vocalist since she has the most powerful voice. Mira serves as the main choreographer and visual stylist. Zoey serves as the main rapper in the group. Regarding their superhero personas: each member of Huntrix fights in a different style with a different weapon. The group’s long history working together is also known as collective team tenure, which positively impacts team performance (Gonzalez‐Mulé et al., 2020). Not only is tenure with the team helpful to team performance, but differential, which refers to the way that the additive tenure of different experiences from team members can enhance team performance. Thus, the differing skills of Rumi, Mira, and Zoey help them work effectively as a group of K-Pop Demon Hunters.

Who Makes a Good Team?

Huntrix have a long tenure together as a group, but their team members have distinct personalities. Optimal team personality composition has been a question among industrial organizational psychologists for many years. Much of the conflict in the movie involves differing personalities between the team members. Mira and Zoey get along well and often spend time outside of work. Rumi often keeps to herself because she fears revealing her secret demonic heritage to her bandmates. Despite continued success as singers and hunters, these differences begin to cause some problems. For example, Rumi rushes the release of Golden because she wants to be rid of her demonic “patterns.” The group disagrees about how best to fight their rivals the Saja Boys. Are these characters too different to be an effective team? Team composition research has an answer.

Research on team personality composition has revealed that team members need to have some specific personality traits in common to be effective. The most commonly used model of personality in organizational behavior is the Big 5 model (Saucier & Srinivas, 2015) that describes personality using five factors: conscientiousness (dependability), agreeableness (cooperativeness), neuroticism (towards negative thoughts and emotional reactivity), openness to experience (imagination), and extraversion (level of sociability). Conscientiousness can be defined as dependability Conscientious teams that were open to experiences and preferred working together were more likely to perform effectively (Bell, 2007). In other words, your team must individually be conscientious and caring about the team’s outcomes and like working together. Increased conscientiousness and agreeableness were also related to higher team performance (Peeters et al., 2006).

Individually each member of the K-Pop Demon Hunters is strongly committed to their mission. They care about their team’s outcomes, especially protecting their fans and producing great songs for them. They also want to work together and only stop working together because of a trick played upon them by the demons.

What does this mean for teams in the real world? Ultimately you want to find individual team members who are conscientious and want to fulfill the roles that they are given. Each member of Huntrix likes their role and has the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to complete the tasks given to them. Coupled with their conscientiousness and agreeableness as group members, this makes them an effective team. Even after their trust is shaken by the reveal of Rumi’s demonic nature, they are still able to get back together to defeat the demonic plans of Gwi-Ma. Research also indicates that you can improve team performance by focusing on team training (Salas et al., 2008). Teams can be trained to develop better working methods and improve working relationships.

Succeeding as a Team

How do the K-Pop Demon Hunters win? First, they recommit to the mission of demon hunting. Second, they reveal the truth about themselves to one another. Specifically, Rumi reveals her demon heritage while Mira and Zoey learn to accept her for who she is. They also reiterate their roles on the team and come to an agreement about their roles. In the snippet of dialogue below you can see the team regrouping and attempting to connect. They acknowledge their difficulties and admit some of their own individual deficiencies while reiterating their commitment to their ultimate goals.

Mira: I know our faults and fears must never be seen, but, look, I'm kind of a difficult person. Overly blunt, short-fused, highly aggressive. My whole life, those things were a liability. But somehow, with you guys, they're okay.

Zoey: I feel the same way. Before I joined Huntrix, I felt like my thoughts and my lyrics and all my notebooks were just useless and weird. But with the two of you, they mean something. I mean something.

This snippet of conversation from the movie illustrates how a team can reframe and accept one another. Each member of the team recognizes each other’s value and the deficiencies that the other team member covers for. Where an individual team member would struggle to succeed together, they are a stronger unit.

Organizational Takeaways

What lessons can organizations take away from K-Pop Demon Hunters? First, select team members who can perform. Your team members need the knowledge, skills, and abilities to accomplish the work. Then invest in team training to make sure that the team knows their roles and knows how to work together. If your organization can commit to that then there’s no reason you won’t have your own K-Pop Demon Hunter level team!

References

Bell, S. T. (2007). Deep-level composition variables as predictors of team performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 595–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.595

Gonzalez‐Mulé, E., S. Cockburn, B., W. McCormick, B., & Zhao, P. (2020). Team tenure and team performance: A meta‐analysis and process model. Personnel Psychology, 73(1), 151–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12319

Kang, M., & Appelhans, C. (Directors). (2025). KPop demon hunters [Film]. Sony Pictures Animation; Netflix.

Peeters, M. A., Van Tuijl, H. F., Rutte, C. G., & Reymen, I. M. (2006). Personality and team performance: A meta‐analysis. European Journal of Personality, 20(5), 377–396. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.588

Salas, E., DiazGranados, D., Klein, C., Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Goodwin, G. F., & Halpin, S. M. (2008). Does team training improve team performance? A meta-analysis. Human Factors, 50(6), 903–933. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008x375009

Salas, E., Shuffler, M. L., Thayer, A. L., Bedwell, W. L., & Lazzara, E. H. (2015). Understanding and improving teamwork in organizations: A scientifically based practical guide. Human Resource Management, 54(4), 599–622. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21628

Saucier, G., & Srivastava, S. (2015). What makes a good structural model of personality? Evaluating the big five and alternatives. In M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, M. L. Cooper, & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 4. Personality processes and individual differences (pp. 283–305). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14343-013

Sayeedul “Sy” Islam, PhD, is an Industrial-Organizational psychologist and cofounder of Talent Metrics Consulting. He teaches courses in research methods, industrial-organizational psychology, training and development, and has mentored numerous undergraduate and graduate research assistants. His work focuses on gig work, leadership use of social media, and cybervetting in hiring processes. He is also the cofounder and vice-president of Talent Metrics Consulting and the coauthor of Leaders Assemble: Leadership in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and The Elements of Leadership: Leadership Lessons From Avatar the Last Air Bender.

Note: Although I am fascinated by the myths and cultural stories surrounding named swords, my expertise is in psychology rather than history or literature. This topic took me a bit outside of my usual comfort zone and draws on a diverse range of sources including mythology, literature, popular culture, and academic texts. I have certainly taken some interpretive liberties, but the concepts are rooted in relevant psychological and feminist theories. This article is not intended to be a comprehensive catalog of all named swords, but rather a representative overview of notable examples.

“Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born of all England” - Thomas Mallory, Le Morte d'Arthur

"The blade was Valyrian steel, spell-forged and dark as smoke. Nothing held an edge like Valyrian steel." - George R. R. Martin, A Song of Ice and Fire

“Aragorn threw back his cloak. The elven-sheath glittered as he grasped it, and the bright blade of Andúril shone like a sudden flame as he swept it out. ‘Elendil! I am Aragorn, son of Arathorn, and am called Elessar, the Elfstone, Dúnadan, the heir of Isildur Elendil’s son of Gondor. Here is the Sword that was Broken and is forged again! Will you aid me or thwart me? Choose swiftly!’” - J. R. R. Tolkein, The Lord of the Rings

Swords hold a unique and enduring place in both history and in popular culture, serving not only as weapons but also as symbols of power, honor, and identity. From their origins as practical tools in ancient warfare, swords have evolved into iconic cultural artifacts that embody ideals such as chivalry, justice, and spiritual strength (Sayer et al., 2019). In medieval Europe, swords were central to the knightly code and royal authority, while in Japan, the katana represented the soul and discipline of the samurai. Beyond their historical roots, swords continue to captivate modern audiences through literature, film, and art, where they often symbolize heroism, sacrifice, and transformation. Their lasting appeal lies in this blend of tangible craftsmanship and rich symbolic meaning, making swords a captivating motif across cultures and genres (Lobach, 2018). (For a more comprehensive history of swords, see Burton, 2014).

The true mark of a hero isn’t simply the ability to wield a sword; after all, anyone can pick up a blade. What sets heroes apart is their possession of a named sword: A typically legendary weapon often inherited through lineage, claimed from the aftermath of a great battle, forged from rare materials, imbued with magical power, or some combination of the above (Bond, 2017).

Across the realm of popular culture, named swords such as Excalibur, Andúril, the vorpal blade, or the Sword of Gryffindor take on profound psychological significance, becoming central symbols of a character’s identity and journey. These iconic blades embody ideals like destiny, heroism, and redemption, while also carrying intricate histories and even personalities of their own. And it’s not just about owning the sword, the actual process of acquiring a named sword—whether it’s pulled from a stone, received as a supernatural gift, or reforged to fulfill a renewed purpose—is often a pivotal moment in the hero’s acceptance of their quest or legacy. With elaborate designs, mystical origins, and storied pasts, these swords function as artifacts loaded with cultural values and narrative meaning. They often outlive their wielders, standing as lasting symbols of virtue, authority, or doom, and reinforcing enduring themes of legacy and the cyclical nature of heroism. And the names themselves are often rife with meaning (a discussion of the sword names goes beyond the scope of this paper, but see J.T.O, (2012) for more discussion on this subject).

The tendency to name swords falls under the broader idea of anthropomorphism, the inclination to attribute human traits, intentions, or personalities to nonhuman objects. In giving a sword a name, people treat it almost like a companion or character, which can make the object feel more meaningful, powerful, or personally significant (Gregg, 2025; Wan & Chen, 2021). Ultimately, naming swords can foster a profound sense of kinship with the blades, as if they were loyal companions sharing our triumphs, burdens, and personal histories—imbuing cold steel with the warmth of human stories.

Forging Identity: Teen Heroes and Their Swords

“The Sword of Gryffindor appeared to any worthy Gryffindor in a time of need. …. It [the sword] chose him [Harry Potter], he was the one who found it, it came to him out of the Sorting Hat...” - J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter

Iconic swords carry deep psychological significance beyond their entertainment value. They often symbolize the development of self-worth, the call to overcome obstacles, and the forging of purpose through struggle. The ritual of earning or wielding a named sword taps into our fundamental desires for recognition and transformation, inviting audiences to connect emotionally with both the hero and the legendary power embodied by the blade.

As a developmental scholar, I notice that many heroic figures in popular culture (and by extension, mythology and literature) are portrayed during adolescence, a pivotal stage of identity formation (Erikson, 1950). Characters like Harry Potter, Percy Jackson, and King Arthur (who was about 15 when he pulled Excalibur from the stone) exemplify this critical phase in which exploring life’s challenges shapes a coherent sense of self. The named swords they wield (the Sword of Gryffindor, Riptide, and Excalibur, respectively) serve as powerful external symbols reflecting their internal psychological journeys and affirming their worthiness. And this worthiness must be proven through struggle: Harry Potter demonstrates loyalty to draw the Sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat, Aragorn alone claims the true power of Andúril as the rightful King of Gondor, and Excalibur emerges only for the worthy King Arthur. Named swords endure in our imagination because they represent the psychological quest for meaning, courage, and a rightful place in the world.

Sword-centered narratives resonate profoundly because they externalize universal adolescent struggles with questions like “Who am I?” and “What do I stand for?” They reveal that identity is not fixed but actively shaped through engagement with external challenges and internal conflicts. The recurring motif of a young hero claiming a sword and embarking on a transformative journey mirrors developmental theories emphasizing how narrative, symbolism, and the adoption of new roles contribute to identity consolidation during adolescence and into emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1950).

The Sword as Phallus: Constructions of Masculinity and Power

“Swift as a deer. Quiet as a shadow. Fear cuts deeper than swords. Quick as a snake. Calm as still water… Strong as a bear. Fierce as a wolverine. Fear cuts deeper than swords.” - Arya Stark, George R. R. Martin, A Song of Ice and Fire

“The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
He left it dead, and with its head
He went galumphing back.”
Lewis Carroll, Jabberwocky

I am certainly not the first scholar, nor even the first pop culture enthusiast, to connect the phallic shape of a sword with masculinity. This symbolic association has long been recognized in literary criticism, psychoanalytic theory, and cultural studies, where the sword’s elongated form is seen as a pointed (pun intended) emblem of male virility, power, and authority (e.g., Savini, 2023). Sigmund Freud and later psychoanalytic thinkers further emphasized that weapons such as swords often symbolize masculine sexuality and aggressive instincts, with the sword functioning as a visible representation of male potency and dominance. Overall, the sword as a phallic symbol is explored in scholarly discourse not only as an emblem of masculine aggression and virility but also as a conscious instrument of control and domination within the context of sexual violence, representing both the physical and symbolic expressions of patriarchal power. This dual significance emphasizes how owning or wielding a named weapon can function as a double-edged sword (another pun!), carrying the potential for both protection and harm. Moreover, it underscores the heavy responsibility borne by the wielder of such a potent symbol: While a person of good character may use it nobly, the same symbol in the hands of someone with ill intent can perpetuate violence and harm, highlighting the inherent duality embedded in its power.

It is also worth noting that the most famous named swords in popular culture are overwhelmingly associated with male wielders. This observation is not intended to imply that women lack the ability or skill to wield swords (both Galadriel and Éowyn (Lord of the Rings) would fiercely challenge that notion). Instead, it underscores a persistent pattern in media and storytelling where female sword bearers seldom attain the same iconic recognition or lasting fame as their male counterparts. Women’s swordplay is often underrepresented or overshadowed in popular narratives, and they seldom get access to the so-called “big guns”—those legendary, named weapons that carry significant symbolic weight and cultural prestige.

One notable exception is Oathkeeper, wielded by Brienne of Tarth in Game of Thrones. Oathkeeper is a Valyrian steel longsword forged from the Stark greatsword Ice, historically the ancestral weapon of House Stark. Brienne’s possession of Oathkeeper symbolizes her vow to Catelyn Stark to find and protect Sansa Stark, turning the blade into a tangible embodiment of duty between them. Beyond a mere weapon, it represents a powerful bond between two women whose shared commitment to honor and protection quietly shapes the fate of House Stark.

Another, less notable, exception is Arya Stark’s sword Needle in Game of Thrones, a blade repeatedly described as small, slender, and light, clearly designed for speed and precision rather than brute force. Although neither legendary nor oversized (and bearing a name coined by Arya herself rather than one bestowed by history) Needle began less as a pointed joke at the expense of her traditionally feminine sister Sansa and more as a subtle assertion of Arya’s own identity. Yet for all its modest size and origins, it still stands as a named sword, carrying symbolic weight alongside more traditional, storied blades.

Conclusion

In conclusion, named swords across popular culture, literature, and mythology serve as potent symbols that delineate rites of passage, inviting both characters and audiences to grapple with enduring questions of power, responsibility, worthiness, and identity. These narratives go well beyond mere entertainment—by placing emphasis on the act of claiming, wielding, or inheriting a named sword, they mirror our own journeys through moments of transformation and self-discovery. The symbolic resonance of swords extends to cultural messages about gender roles, tradition, and the recognition of personal growth, while also reflecting how societies define heroism, legacy, and agency. In this way, swords are transformed from mere instruments of combat into layered psychosocial markers, embodying the intersecting dualities of strength and vulnerability, tradition and change, as well as the ongoing quest to find one’s place and meaning in the world… both within the pages of fiction and in the evolution of our real-life identities.

References

Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.5.469

Bond, S. (2017, Sept. 7). Why do we name our weapons? Famous weapons from Excalibur to Little Boy. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/drsarahbond/2017/09/07/why-do-we-name-our-weapons-famous-weapons-from-excalibur-to-little-boy/

Burton, R. F. (2014). The book of the sword: A history of daggers, sabers, and scimitars from ancient times to the modern day. Simon and Schuster.

Carroll, L. (1871/2008). Through the looking-glass, and what Alice found there. Macmillan.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Company.

Gregg, J. (2025, Sept. 2). Our irrational, anthropomorphic urges. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/202509/our-irrational-anthropomorphic-urges

J.T.O. (2012, Nov. 27). Magic and steel: Real-life swords with names. American Journal of Arcane and Obscure Research (online journal). https://ajaor.wordpress.com/2012/11/27/magic-and-steel-real-life-swords-with-names/

Lobach, D. (2018, November). Medieval sources of the modern symbolic meaning of the sword. In International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Ecological Studies (CESSES 2018) (pp. 779–783). Atlantis Press.

Malory, T. (1969). Le Morte d'Arthur (N. Wright, Ed.). Oxford University Press. (Original work completed c. 1470, first printed 1485)

Martin, G. R. R. (1996–present). A Song of Ice and Fire series. Harper Voyager.Rowling, J. K. (1997–2007). Harry Potter series. Scholastic.

Tolkien, J. R. R. (1965). The Lord of the Rings series (2nd ed.). Houghton Mifflin.

Savini, R. E. (2023). The—ick of It: Phalluses, Swords, and Character Development in “Beowulf” and “Morte d’Arthur.” International Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities, 11(3), 8. https://doi.org/10.7710/2168-0620.1135

Sayer, D., Sebo, E., & Hughes, K. (2019). A double-edged sword: Swords, bodies, and personhood in early medieval archaeology and literature. European Journal of Archaeology, 22(4), 542–566. https://doi.org/10.1017/eaa.2019.18

Wan, E. W., & Chen, R. P. (2021). Anthropomorphism and object attachment. Current Opinion in Psychology, 39, 88-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.009

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Every December, millions of people transform into enthusiastic brand ambassadors without even realizing it. They flood social media with colorful graphics showcasing their Spotify Wrapped results: top artists, favorite genres, and quirky "listening personalities." Beneath the surface, something fascinating is happening: Spotify has turned private data into a marketing tool and users into free advertising distributors (Banerji, 2025).

Spotify Wrapped isn't just clever branding; it's psychology in action. Wrapped taps into powerful human drives: our need for self-expression, our desire to belong, and our irresistible urge to compare ourselves with others (Banerji, 2025) and reveals how psychological principles are shifting how marketing works today.

We face thousands of choices online every day, and our brains simply can't analyze each one carefully. Instead, we rely on mental shortcuts (Wu & Cheng, 2011). Marketers understand these psychological processes and characteristics (Özdemir, 2025). They design experiences that automatically activate these shortcuts, guiding our decisions in ways that feel completely natural (Tapp, 2024). Research shows that these shortcuts are not random but stem from well-documented cognitive biases, including anchoring, the decoy effect, social proof, loss aversion, and the halo effect. These cognitive shortcuts consistently shape how consumers interpret choices and assign value to outcomes (Sarabi & Jafari, 2025). Marketers intentionally exploit these biases, often in combination, as activating multiple biases simultaneously can significantly increase persuasion and conversion rates (Sarabi & Jafari, 2025).

Technology has supercharged these tactics. Retailers track your browsing history, personalize recommendations, and time promotions for moments when you're most likely to click "buy." (Kanth, 2024). Social media platforms use sophisticated algorithms to promote targeted items (Rezaei et al., 2025). These algorithms amplify our interest by leveraging fear of missing out (FOMO; David & Roberts, 2024). When your feed fills with friends posting their Spotify Wrapped results, influencers showcasing their latest purchases, or trending experiences everyone seems to be enjoying, there's subtle but real pressure to participate. That anxiety drives engagement and spending as people rush to keep pace with what appears to be trendy.

What makes modern marketing so powerful is that it doesn't feel like persuasion. It feels like discovery, like personal choice, like fun. Understanding the psychology behind these strategies enables us to recognize when external actors intentionally use external factors to shape our decisions. The next time we feel that urge to share, buy, or join in, we can pause and ask: Is this really me, or is this psychology being subtly employed to influence me?

References

Banerji, I. (2025, December 3). The marketing genius of Spotify Wrapped. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/the-marketing-genius-of-spotify-wrapped-270135

David, M. E., & Roberts, J. A. (2024). Me, myself, and I: Self-centeredness, FOMO, and social media use. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 56(4), 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs000038

Kanth, S. (2024, September 9). McNuged: How McD uses UX to get what they want. Bootcamp. https://medium.com/design-bootcamp/mcnuged-how-mcd-uses-ux-to-get-what-they-want-4c6c599385b1

Jones, L. (2024, December 5). The marketing of the future is psychology multiplied by technology. CEOWORLD. https://ceoworld.biz/2025/12/04/the-marketing-of-the-future-is-psychology-multiplied-by-technology/

Özdemir, Ş. (2025). The intersection of behavioural economics and marketing. In F. I. Konyalıoğlu & F. S. Esen (Dds). Multidisciplinary Approaches to Contemporary Marketing. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-78026-4_7

Rezaei, A., Gonzalez, M., Chen, D., & Laurent, S. (2025). Impact of social media algorithms on online purchasing decisions. Journal of Electronic Commerce, 1(2), 1–16.

Sarabi, A., & Jafari, M. (2025). Application of behavioral economics and cognitive biases in marketing and sales: A systematic review. Applied Innovations in Industrial Management, 5(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.63630/aiim.51.11

Tapp, S. (2024, November 13). Marketing expert reveals the hidden psychology of advertising and why we buy without realising. London Daily News. https://www.londondaily.news/marketing-expert-reveals-the-hidden-psychology-of-advertising-and-why-we-buy-without-realising/

Wu, C.-S., & Cheng, F.-F. (2011). The joint effect of framing and anchoring on internet buyers' decision‑making. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 10(3), 358–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2011.01.002

Competition threads through the fabric of daily life, shaping how we socialize, work, and grow. It can be a powerful motivator or a detrimental distraction (Sarkis, 2024). Competitiveness arises not only from individual traits but also from the environments we move through—sometimes sparked by something as simple as a friendly challenge at school or a moment of comparison on social media (Garcia et al., 2023). From workplace rivalries to everyday social interactions, competition can inspire our best efforts or fuel unhelpful pressures.

Consider the workplace, where many compete for positions, promotions, and supervisors' approval. This workplace competition can sharpen focus, increase productivity, and encourage goal-oriented behavior (Grant, 2022). It can also lead to harmful behaviors, increased risk-taking, and attention directed toward undermining others rather than improving oneself (Garcia et al., 2023). The same psychological mechanisms that fuel healthy striving can, when misaligned, tip into unhealthy conniving.

The intricate complexity of our social networks also plays a crucial role. Social hierarchies motivate people to better themselves, but they also contribute to stress or depressive symptoms. Rivalry and admiration seeking are two key facets of this dynamic (Szücs, 2023). The extent to which people express these tendencies reflects an interaction of related traits, and when overexpressed, may contribute to personality characteristics such as narcissism. Once again, psychological processes and tendencies quietly shape how competition affects our social worlds.

Evolutionarily, overt competition has become less prevalent as societies have grown more cooperative and inclusive. Reduced direct competition between genders, races, and cultures contributes to perceived greater stability and safety (Muthukrishna, 2021). Cultural evolution, however, continues to be driven by transformative ideas that generate debate and restructuring. We still operate with the cognitive tools of our ancestors. Competition between groups often favors the side that benefits the majority (Henrich, 2021), a dynamic that highlights the deep psychological roots of both conflict and cooperation. Understanding where these tendencies originated helps us see their role in modern life rather than viewing competition and cooperation solely through the lens of personal experience.

Ultimately, our goal should be to express competition in healthy, constructive ways rather than attempting to eradicate it. When balanced with empathy and cooperation, competition contributes to a more innovative, resilient, and connected society (Tuomela, 1993). In this sense, the psychology of competition reveals how it can be harnessed to increase motivation and social cohesion or misused to create tension and division.

References

Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Elliot, A. J. (2023). The Oxford handbook of the psychology of competition (pp. 22–23). Oxford University Press.

Grant, A. M., & Shandell, M. S. (2022). Social motivation at work: The organizational psychology of effort for, against, and with others. Annual Review of Psychology, 73(1), 301–326.

Henrich, J., & Muthukrishna, M. (2021). The origins and psychology of human cooperation. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 204–240. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-081920-042106

Sarkis, S. A. (2024). The psychology of competitiveness. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/here-there-and-everywhere/202408/the-psychology-of-competitiveness

Szücs, A., Edershile, E. A., Wright, A. G., & Dombrovski, A. (2022). Rivalry and admiration-seeking in a social competition: From traits to behaviors through contextual cues. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cwtvp

Tuomela, R. (1993). What is cooperation? Erkenntnis, 38(1), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01129023

Ever walk into a space and instantly feel at ease—or suddenly tense? Or maybe you’ve wandered through a park following certain paths, pausing at just the right moments, or becoming completely immersed without any effort. That’s not magic—that’s design psychology (Batra et al., 2015).

Design isn’t just about looking good or being technically precise; it’s about how we respond to and experience environments. Psychologists study how people perceive, think, and interact with the world around them. Designers translate that knowledge to make spaces feel natural, intuitive, and uplifting (Carbon, 2019). Design reduces mental effort, guides behavior, supports well-being, and creates connection (Batra et al., 2015).

Design psychology isn’t new. Lillian Gilbreth, a pioneering industrial psychologist, demonstrated how thoughtful design transforms everyday life in the early 1900s. By reorganizing kitchens and tools, she showed that people could work faster and with less strain and stress (Graham, 1999), revealing a simple truth: When design aligns with the way people think and move, life works better (Massaro, 1990).

We see these principles and ideas everywhere. For example, Disney theme parks are designed so that every path, sightline, sound, and visual cue shapes visitors’ emotions and behavior, often without their awareness (Clément, 2012). It’s design that feels effortless, even magical, precisely because it is grounded in psychological insight.

Design psychology impacts where we work and study. Where we sit, the materials surrounding us, and the arrangement of a space influence how we communicate, collaborate, and focus (Batra et al., 2015; Martinell et al., 2022). Architects and city planners apply psychological principles to design communities in which people feel connected, comfortable, and motivated (Dayaratne, 2016; Ozen, 2025).

Our digital spaces are similarly impacted by purposeful design (Kanth, 2024). When we swipe through an app, navigate a website, or interact with a smart device, we experience psychological design translated into a new medium. User experience (UX) designers apply psychological insights—reducing cognitive load, anticipating user needs, creating intuitive flows—from the real world to the taps, menus, and notifications of the digital (Norman, 2013). Whether scrolling through social media, ordering food, or managing finances online, you're moving through carefully designed psychological architecture—spaces built not from wood and steel, but from pixels and code, all grounded in psychological principles.

The takeaway? Design isn’t just decoration—it’s a powerful psychological tool that influences how we feel, think, and move (Carbon, 2019). From kitchens to theme parks, offices to entire cities, physical to digital spaces, understanding the psychology behind design helps us create spaces that aren’t just seen, but truly felt.

References

Batra, R., Seifert, C., & Brei, D. (2015). The psychology of design. Routledge, 2040, 2041.

Carbon, C.-C. (2019). Psychology of design. Design Science, 5, e26. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/design-science/article/psychology-of-design/4EB5E9A53C998069B8727B04AF8325B7

Clément, T. (2012). “Locus of control”: A selective review of Disney theme parks. InMedia, 2012(2), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.4000/inmedia.463

Dayaratne, R. (2016). Creating places through participatory design: Psychological techniques to understand people’s conceptions. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 31, 719–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-016-9497-2

Graham, L. D. (1999). Domesticating efficiency: Lillian Gilbreth’s scientific management of homemakers, 1942–1930. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society, 24(3), 633. https://doi-org.ucark.idm.oclc.org/10.1086/495368

Kanth, S. (2024, September 9). McNuged: How McD uses UX to get what they want. Bootcamp. https://medium.com/design-bootcamp/mcnuged-how-mcd-uses-ux-to-get-what-they-want-4c6c599385b1

Martinell Barfoed, E., & Hjärpe, T. (2022). The desk as a barrier and carrier in social work. In J. Jarlbrink & C. Järpvall (Eds.), Deskbound cultures: Media and materialities at work (Vol. 53, pp. 141). https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/122392103/
Deskbound_cultures_inlaga_OA.pdf#page=113

Massaro, D. W. (1990). [Review of The psychology of everyday things, by D. A. Norman]. The American Journal of Psychology, 103(1), 141–143. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423268

Norman, D. A. (2013). The design of everyday things: Revised and expanded edition. Basic Books.

Ozen, Sinan (2025). The impact of architectural design on human behavior and well-being. https://illustrarch.com/articles/49905-the-impact-of-architectural-design-on-human-behavior.html

Psychological factors play a central role in shaping the quality and dynamics of our relationships. These influences help explain why some people experience more satisfying and stable romantic, familial, and social connections than others. Personality traits, in particular, show strong associations with relationship satisfaction, social well-being, and the number of close bonds people maintain (Joshanloo, 2022; Kang, 2023). By studying these processes, researchers continue to uncover the mechanisms that support healthy interpersonal functioning—reminding us that psychology quietly influences our interactions every day.

Research demonstrates that personality characteristics influence the formation and maintenance of social ties. Kang (2023) found that individuals high in extraversion and agreeableness reported more close friendships both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, suggesting that sociability and cooperativeness facilitate interpersonal closeness. Similarly, Joshanloo (2022) showed that personality predicted social well-being across two decades, with extraversion linked to greater connectedness and neuroticism associated with interpersonal strain. These patterns emphasize that personality influences how individuals develop and sustain supportive relationships—and how the individual psychologies we bring to our social worlds, in turn, shape them.

Personality also influences romantic relationship quality. O’Meara and South (2019) found that agreeableness and emotional stability predicted higher romantic satisfaction over time, while Orth (2013) demonstrated notable actor and partner effects, meaning that both individuals’ traits contribute to overall relational outcomes. These findings position personality as a key predictor of long-term romantic adjustment and highlight how individual differences shape shared relational experiences. Even in moments that feel spontaneous or emotionally driven, psychological influences are quietly at work.

Research shows that personality strongly predicts friendship outcomes as well. Korner and Altmann (2023) found that personality traits—rather than similarity—were associated with higher friendship satisfaction, while cross-cultural work demonstrates that social support mediates links between personality and well-being (Yu et al., 2021). The people we choose, the connections we form, and the comfort we find in others all reflect layers of psychological influence.

Other psychological processes also contribute to healthy relationships. Effective emotional regulation, secure attachment, and clear communication foster trust, closeness, and long-term relational stability. Insights Psychology (2024) highlights that emotional attunement and adaptive communication patterns strengthen both friendships and romantic partnerships. When considered alongside personality research, these factors provide a comprehensive picture of how psychological functioning shapes relational outcomes.

Across diverse contexts, psychological factors reliably predict relationship satisfaction, stability, and social well-being, reinforcing the idea that relational health is deeply rooted in psychological characteristics (Hill et al., 2012). Whether we recognize it or not, psychology is present in every relationship—from the first moments of connection to the long-term bonds we nurture over time.

References

Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Mroczek, D. K., & Roberts, B. W. (2012). Examining concurrent and longitudinal relations between personality traits and social well-being in adulthood. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(6), 698–705. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611433888

insightspsychology. (2024, October 24). The psychology of relationships: What makes relationships healthy, and how can we maintain them? Insights Psychology. https://insightspsychology.org/psychology-of-healthy-relationships/

Kang, W. (2023). Establishing the associations between the Big Five personality traits and self-reported number of close friends: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Acta Psychologica, 239, 104010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104010

Korner, R., & Altmann, T. (2023). Personality is related to satisfaction in friendship dyads, but similarity is not: Understanding the links between the Big Five and friendship satisfaction using actor-partner interdependence models. Journal of Research in Personality, 107, 104436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104436

Joshanloo, M. (2022). Longitudinal relationships between personality traits and social well-being: A two-decade study. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23, 2969–2983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00534-1

O'Meara, M. S., & South, S. C. (2019). Big Five personality domains and relationship satisfaction: Direct effects and correlated change over time. Journal of Personality, 87(6), 1206–1220. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12468

Orth, U. (2013). How large are actor and partner effects of personality on relationship satisfaction? The importance of controlling for shared method variance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1359–1372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167213492429

Yu, Y., Zhao, Y., Li, D., Zhang, J., & Li, J. (2021). The relationship between Big Five personality and social well-being of Chinese residents: The mediating effect of social support. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 613659. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.613659

Ready to make the most of your regional convention experience? Whether it’s your first time or you’re a seasoned attendee, planning ahead can turn a good trip into a great one. Here’s how to do it:

1. Choose Your Event

Psi Chi attends and provides original programming at six regional conventions each spring: East, Midwest, Rocky Mountain, Southeast, Southwest, and West. Each convention typically includes a Psi Chi Distinguished Lecturer event, a Diversity session, and symposiums and workshops about getting into grad school, career advice, and trending advancements in psychology. If an upcoming Psi Chi regional program isn’t posted yet on our website, you can check last year’s schedule to get an idea of what to expect. As a convention attendee, you will also be welcome to attend many other non-Psi Chi sessions at the convention, such as presidential addresses and keynotes.

2. Register Early

Register online on the official regional convention website (e.g., EPA, MPA, RMPA) as soon as possible to secure your spot and take advantage of early-bird pricing. Undergraduates often receive a discounted rate. Also, if you wish to gain research presentation experience for your CV or resumé, know that poster presentation deadlines for spring regionals are usually in late fall or early winter. Check the Psi Chi or regional convention website for deadlines and specific guidelines, and the Psi Chi website also provides basic info about preparing posters and paper presentations. Presenting research is not required to attend.

3. Book Your Hotel and Plan Transportation

Most conventions offer discounted hotel rates on their websites, but these can fill up fast so reserve a room early. If you’re traveling with classmates, consider sharing a room to save costs. For transportation, compare driving, carpooling, flying, or public transit options. To reduce travel costs, Psi Chi offers Regional Travel Grants due early each calendar year. Be sure to apply!

4. Sign Up for Leadership Opportunities

Want to stand out? Volunteer to help at the Psi Chi Exhibit Booth or offer to assist the Regional VP with Psi Chi programming (you can find their contact info on the Psi Chi webpage for each regional convention). These roles look great on your CV and help you meet leaders in the field.

5. Pack Smart

What to wear: Business casual is usually best—professional but comfortable. If you are presenting research, consider dressing more formally for that specific session, because you might have your photo taken or be approached by prospective grad school faculty who are interested in your work.
What to bring: Notebook, pens, business cards, and a copy of your CV or resumé (just in case!). Also, remember to silence your phone during sessions!

6. Set Your Agenda

Planning ahead ensures that you make the most of your time. A couple weeks before each regional convention (or often sooner!), the Psi Chi program will be available on the Psi Chi website, and you can also find the full convention program on the regional convention’s website (e.g., SEPA, SWPA, WPA). Regionals often offer multiple sessions at overlapping times, so before you go, check the meeting program and mark sessions, talks, or posters that are must-sees. While you may be tempted to do it all, set aside time for lunch and mental health breaks too. You’ll thank yourself later! Conventions are often held in vibrant cities like Las Vegas, New Orleans, Washington D.C., and New York City, which you may wish to explore while you’re there. Consider making dinner or entertainment plans to fill your free time.

7. Bonus Tip: Network Like a Pro

Don’t be shy! Attend networking events, ask questions during Q&As, and chat with folks at the Psi Chi Exhibit Booth. Seek out professionals and faculty from graduate programs you’re interested in—they could become your future mentors!

Start Planning Today!

Regional conventions are packed with opportunities to learn, connect, and grow. A little preparation goes a long way, so grab your calendar, check those deadlines, and get ready for an unforgettable experience. See you there!

The smile I had is gone away
Those that steal are gonna pay
Steppin' to the bad side today
– Steppin’ to the Bad Side

Dreamgirls is a musical-turned-film that follows the rise and fall of the fictional 1960s girl group, The Dreams (Condon, 2006). Loosely inspired by real-life Motown acts like The Supremes, the story centers on three young Black singers: Effie White, the powerhouse vocalist with a fiery spirit; Deena Jones, the soft-spoken beauty who becomes the face of the group; and Lorrell Robinson, the charming and optimistic peacekeeper. Under the control of ambitious manager Curtis Taylor Jr., the group rises to stardom… but quickly learns that success comes at a cost. Set against the backdrop of the civil rights movement and the shifting landscape of the American music industry, Dreamgirls explores themes of fame, betrayal, identity, race, and the emotional toll of fame.

The Cost of Fame

Listen to the song here in my heart
A melody I start but can’t complete
I’m more than what you made of me
I followed the voice you gave to me.
– Listen

In Dreamgirls, fame is portrayed as a double-edged sword — granting visibility and success while simultaneously eroding the characters’ psychological well-being. As The Dreams rise to stardom, Effie and Deena’s struggles become central to the story. Effie and Curtis become involved romantically, making it even more of a betrayal when he replaces her with Deena… both in the group and in his bed. This rejection deeply affects Effie, leading her to feel inadequate and abandoned.

Effie’s emotional turmoil is a powerful example of social comparison theory, which suggests that individuals evaluate their own worth by comparing themselves to others, and these comparisons can be upward (comparing to those perceived as better off) or downward (comparing to those perceived as worse off). Upward comparisons often motivate self-improvement but can also threaten self-esteem, while downward comparisons tend to boost self-evaluation and feelings of satisfaction or self-acceptance, even if they might foster complacency or scorn (Festinger, 1954). For Effie, this manifests as an upward comparison as she measures her worth against Deena’s success and finds herself constantly lacking.

Meanwhile, despite achieving fame and recognition, Deena becomes increasingly disconnected from her true self. Under Curtis’s manipulative control (first as her manager and later also as her husband) she is molded into an image that aligns with mainstream, white-centered ideals, losing her voice, autonomy, and personal identity in the process. One of the most pivotal moments of this disconnection occurs when Deena sings “Listen,” a plea for self-expression and independence. Though the song marks the beginning of her awakening, it also reveals how deeply suppressed her authentic self has been.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

I am changing, trying every way I can / I am changing, I'll be better than I am / But I need a friend, to help me start all over again
– I am Changing

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a psychological theory that organizes human motivations into five levels, often depicted as a pyramid, where basic physiological needs like food, water, and shelter form the foundation. Once these survival needs are met, individuals seek safety and security, followed by social needs for love and belonging. Higher up the pyramid are esteem needs, which involve respect and recognition, and at the peak is self-actualization: the fulfillment of one’s full potential and creative growth. The theory suggests that lower-level needs must be sufficiently satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating factors, though in practice people may pursue multiple needs simultaneously (Maslow, 1943).

Deena’s journey can be understood through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as she progresses from basic survival needs to self-fulfillment. Deena appears to reach the fourth level, esteem, through fame, public admiration, and external recognition. Yet her rise to fame comes at the expense of love and belonging, a lower psychological need that remains unfulfilled due to her emotionally disconnected relationship with Curtis and the loss of genuine friendship within the Dreams. As a result, she cannot progress to the final stage of self-actualization, where personal growth and authentic creativity flourish. Maslow emphasized that true self-actualization is only possible when one’s foundational needs, particularly love, connection, and safety, are met and secure. Through Deena’s experience, the film underscores that material success and social esteem cannot substitute for emotional intimacy or self-realized purpose: the higher needs that lead to lasting fulfillment.

Racial Erasure

When will come the morning
To drive the night away?
When will come the morning
Of a brighter day?
– Patience

Another prominent theme racial erasure, showcasing how Black artists are often reshaped to fit white, mainstream expectations, typically at the cost of their cultural authenticity and self-expression. As The Dreams gain popularity, Curtis deliberately reshapes their image: their hair is straightened, their choreography becomes more restrained, and their music shifts from gritty soul to polished pop. Effie, the group’s original lead with a bold voice and powerful stage presence, is pushed aside in favor of Deena, whose lighter skin and more subdued demeanor are seen as more palatable to white audiences. This transformation reflects internalized racism (Preston, 2021), where individuals from marginalized groups adopt the dominant culture’s values and appearance in order to gain acceptance.

This shift also aligns with stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995), as performers may feel pressure to downplay aspects of their racial identity to avoid reinforcing negative stereotypes. Deena’s increasing discomfort with her public persona, especially under Curtis’s tight control, underscores the psychological toll of racial erasure — she becomes a manufactured image rather than an autonomous artist. The group’s musical evolution mirrors real-life patterns seen in the 1960s Motown era, where Black musicians were frequently marketed in ways that prioritized crossover appeal to white audiences (George, 1988). Through these narrative choices, Dreamgirls critiques the racialized pressures within the entertainment industry and exposes how fame for Black performers is often conditional upon suppressing their identity.

Female Friendships, Betrayal, and Forgiveness

Oh, I'm not living without you
Not living without you
I don't wanna be free
I'm staying, I'm staying
And you, and you, and you
You're gonna love me
– And I Am Telling You I’m Not Going

The complex relationship between Effie and Deena also illustrates the deep emotional terrain of female friendship, betrayal, and eventual forgiveness. Once close friends and collaborators, their bond fractures when Effie is pushed out of the group — partly due to Curtis’s manipulation, but also because Deena passively allows personal ambition to supersede her loyalty. Adding insult to injury, Deena becomes romantically involved with Curtis while he is still with Effie. While the literature is rampant with scholarship on how it feels to be betrayed by a romantic partner, it was surprisingly difficult to find research on the added complexity of that betrayal coming at the hands of a friend. Betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1996) helps explain Effie’s profound emotional devastation, which arises not only from being pushed out of the group but also from being betrayed in her romantic relationship by her best friend. This dual betrayal (professional and personal) leaves Effie feeling rejected, abandoned, and devalued.

The profound psychological impact of such betrayal can lead to a deep emotional wound, resulting in a breach of trust that is hard to repair. According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1988), the emotional consequences of such a betrayal may lead Effie to struggle with future relationships, as the betrayal by a close friend and partner disrupts her sense of security and attachment. In her powerhouse song "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" we hear Effie's desperate plea to stay connected to the people she loves, reflecting a deep psychological need for belonging and fear of abandonment. Her emotional intensity and resistance to being left behind highlight rejection sensitivity, as she grapples with feelings of unworthiness and the emotional pain of being replaced and discarded.

For Deena, her romantic relationship with Curtis initially appears to offer opportunity and success but ultimately complicates her emotional development. Her involvement with Curtis undermines her loyalty to Effie, and this betrayal fractures their bond. By choosing Curtis and submitting to his control, Deena sacrifices autonomy and authenticity. Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person experiences mental discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaving in ways that contradict their values (Festinger, 1957; McLeod, 2025). Deena likely experiences this inner conflict as she struggles to reconcile her actions (betraying Effie for Curtis) with her self-image as a loyal and compassionate friend. This psychological tension fosters guilt, shame, and self-doubt, emotions that surface later when she seeks to rediscover her identity and independence in the song “Listen.”

The fractured relationship between the two women highlights the lasting psychological consequences of betrayal, where both women are left emotionally scarred by Curtis's manipulation and the loss of their deep friendship. However, the story also explores the healing power of reconciliation. Years later, when Deena helps reinstate Effie for a comeback performance, forgiveness becomes a turning point. This is consistent with research showing that forgiveness in close female friendships is strongly linked to empathy and emotional regulation (Allemand, 2021). Effie’s decision to forgive allows both women to reclaim their integrity and connection, emphasizing that while betrayal damages trust, emotional growth and reconnection are possible when mutual recognition and empathy are present. Dreamgirls thus offers a nuanced portrait of how ambition and systemic pressures strain female friendships, but also how personal agency and compassion can rebuild them.

Conclusion

Dreamgirls will never leave you
And all you gotta do is dream
All you gotta do is dream
All you gotta do is dream
Baby, we'll be there
– Dreamgirls

In conclusion, Dreamgirls poignantly illustrates the high emotional and psychological costs of fame, racial erasure, and betrayal. The characters, particularly Effie and Deena, are forced to navigate a world where their identities and worth are constantly shaped and challenged by external forces. The pursuit of fame leads to personal sacrifices, including the loss of self-identity and authentic connection. Racial erasure is evident as the characters' true voices and experiences are suppressed in favor of mainstream ideals. The betrayal between Effie and Deena, fueled by Curtis's manipulation, further complicates their relationship, leaving both women scarred. Ultimately, the film portrays the emotional toll that these complex issues take on the characters, revealing how fame and betrayal can leave individuals disconnected from themselves and each other.

References

Allemand, M. (2021). Forgiveness in close relationships: A lifespan perspective. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.05.00

Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.

Condon, B. (Director). 2006. Dreamgirls [Film]. DreamWorks Pictures, Paramount Pictures.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Harvard University Press.

George, N. (1988). The death of rhythm and blues. Pantheon Books.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McLeod, S. (2025, June 20). What is cognitive dissonance theory? Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html

Preston, N. (2021, February 15). 10 signs of internalized racism and gaslighting. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/communication-success/202102/10-signs-internalized-racism-and-gaslighting

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Introduction

Going to college has been one of the most challenging and rewarding experiences of my life. As a first-generation psychology major, it often feels like I’m navigating an unknown world. I did not grow up with parents or siblings who could explain research opportunities, graduate school applications, or the language of academia. Because of that, I have had to figure things out through trial and error. Without guidance, there were many times when I felt isolated and underrepresented.

Psychology, as a field that tries to understand human thought and behavior, still struggles with diversity and inclusion. There are gaps in how first-generation students of color are represented and supported. If we are serious about making this field more inclusive, we must do more than celebrate diversity during certain months. We need mentorship, cultural understanding, and consistent support built into the daily life of academic spaces.

The Hidden Burden of Being First Generation

As a first-generation student, I have carried certain responsibilities that many of my peers have never had to think about. I’ve had to help my family understand academic forms and deadlines, sometimes translating information for them while also working part time to support myself. Balancing school, work, and family can be exhausting. There were moments when my effort was misunderstood as lack of focus, when in reality, I was doing the best I could with what I had. The truth is, students like me often do more with fewer resources, and that takes real strength and determination.

Maria’s Story

Maria’s experience reminds me a lot of what many of us go through. She was a psychology major who worked three days a week to help pay her bills. When her professor, Dr. González, asked her to assist in his research lab without pay, she declined because she could not afford to volunteer. Instead of understanding her situation, he assumed she was not ambitious enough. That moment showed how professors sometimes misinterpret financial limitations as lack of interest. Like Maria, I have learned how easily first-generation students can be overlooked simply because our realities don’t fit the traditional image of a “typical” student.

Building Cultural Competence Through Experience

Through my own journey, I’ve learned that cultural competence is not just a buzzword, it’s essential to helping students like me succeed. Professors and peers can make a difference by showing understanding and flexibility.

• Pronounce students’ names correctly to show genuine respect.
• Include readings and research from underrepresented scholars.
• Offer flexible office hours and deadlines that consider students’ work and family responsibilities.
• Encourage everyone to participate in discussions so that no one feels invisible.
• Host workshops and panels that teach how to apply to graduate school and find research opportunities.
• Create storytelling or reflection spaces where students can share their experiences and feel heard.

Programs like Psi Chi and multicultural centers have been vital for me. They provided mentorship, belonging, and support when I needed it most. These communities helped me realize that being first generation is not something to hide but something to be proud of.

Personal Reflection

As a first-generation Black woman in psychology, I have faced moments of doubt and confusion. I used to ask myself where to start, how to apply for research positions, who to talk to about graduate school, and how to build a résumé with no guidance. Before I found supportive professors and organizations like Psi Chi, I often felt like I didn’t belong.

Now, I use my experiences to encourage others who are following a similar path. I know what it feels like to question whether you’re capable or deserving. But over time, I realized that being first generation gave me resilience, empathy, and determination that strengthened me not only as a student but also as a future professional in psychology.

Conclusion

Supporting first generation students is not an act of charity, it is an act of fairness and justice. Diversity in psychology requires more than representation; it requires cultural awareness, mentorship, and understanding. We deserve to be seen and supported as future professionals in a field that is just as vital as medicine, law, or business. Psychology is not “just a degree,” it is a professional discipline that deals directly with the well-being of people and communities. Our programs and training should be funded and valued just like those other professions because mental health is healthcare, and our work saves lives.

By recognizing and uplifting people like me, we can build a field that values every student’s story and sees our backgrounds as strengths rather than limitations.

Kayla Overbey is a graduating senior psychology undergraduate at Virginia Commonwealth University. She studies the connection between social identity and resilience and dedicates her time to mentoring other first\-generation students who are pursuing careers in the behavioral sciences. Her journey has taught her that the struggles of being first\-generation are not weaknesses, they are the roots of her strength and motivation to keep going.

The Notebook in Summary

One of the most iconic movies in the modern world was inspired by the novel, The Notebook, written by Nicholas Sparks and published in 1996. Adapted into a movie in 2004, its depiction of the love story between Noah, (played by Ryan Gosling) and Allie, (played by Rachel McAdams) captured viewers’ hearts. Throughout the movie, the narrative alternates between the past (where Noah and Allie fall in love, separate, and find their way back to one another) and the present (where an elderly man reads from a notebook to an elderly woman who lives in a care facility). As the movie unravels, we discover that the elderly man is Noah, the woman is Allie, and the narrative portrays their life of love and passion. Allie, in her elderly version, is suffering from advanced Alzheimer’s disease and therefore does not recognize either Noah or their story until the very end of the movie. Sadly, following a joyful yet brief reunion, Allie slips away, leaving a heartbroken Noah behind to seemingly repeat his ritual of reading their love story to her day after day. Although the movie is a romantic cinematic masterpiece, the underlying theme of Alzheimer’s also promotes awareness of this devastating disorder, portraying its effects not only on the affected individual but also on their loved ones.

The Notebook and Alzheimer’s Disease

Allie’s condition, illustrated through her struggle with memory loss, reflects one of the key aspects of Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s is a neurodegenerative disorder that involves the gradual and progressive atrophy of brain tissues associated with the deterioration of mental functioning. Affecting widespread brain regions, initial symptoms may appear subtle (e.g., forgetting appointments or failing to think of words or names). However, advanced symptoms may involve an inability to recall recent events or conversations, difficulties managing finances, confusion when driving to familiar locations, and even getting lost when venturing outside alone (Carlson & Birkett, 2021; Masters et al., 2015).

It is important to acknowledge that diseases like Alzheimer’s are often misrepresented in the media. Bouncing between the past and the present, the movie introduces the viewer to a rather late stage of Allie’s disease. It thus fails to represent the elusive nature of the disease’s early stages or the gradual loss of function, which can span years. Since the clinical symptomatic phases of Alzheimer’s typically last 8–10 years and are preceded by preclinical and prodromal stages that can extend over two decades (Masters et al., 2015), the viewer may be misled into thinking that the disorder occurs “overnight.” In addition, although the film focuses on Allie’s memory loss, it neglects other crucial symptoms of the disease, including agitation, psychosis (which may include delusions and hallucinations), depression, apathy, and sleep disturbances (Masters et al., 2015). Other symptoms related to Alzheimer’s that are not depicted in the movie include eye disease and hearing problems, which can lead to social isolation; vulnerability to aspiration pneumonia due to impaired swallowing; and decubitus ulceration of the skin (commonly known as bedsores) due to diminished mobility, among other health-related conditions (Masters et al., 2015).

The Notebook, the Brain, and Memory

Alzheimer’s disease, the most common form of dementia, occurs in approximately 10% of individuals above the age of 65 and in almost 50% of individuals above the age of 85 (Carlson & Birkett, 2021). Although advanced age is a critical risk factor, Alzheimer’s appears to be driven by a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors, with factors such as polymorphism of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, physical inactivity, and smoking affecting the probability of the disease or its age of onset (Lane et al., 2018; Masters et al., 2015; Scheltens et al., 2021). Although the cause of Alzheimer’s disease remains controversial and incompletely understood, the hallmark of the disease is the accumulation of insoluble forms of amyloid-β (Aβ) protein in plaques formed in extracellular spaces, as well as aggregation of the microtubule protein tau in neurofibrillary tangles. Both processes are toxic and can lead to neuroinflammation, neuronal dysfunction, and cell degeneration (Carlson & Birkett, 2021; Lane et al., 2018; Masters et al., 2015).

In this respect, the resulting degeneration of brain areas such as the frontal cortex may underlie patients’ deficits in attention, judgment, and decision-making, while deterioration of the parietal and temporal cortex (where the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala reside) may impact patients’ ability to form new memories and regulate their emotions. Importantly, some areas of the brain show delayed atrophy and thus preserve their function well into advanced stages of the disease. For instance, the caudal anterior cingulate cortex and the ventral presupplementary motor area, which are involved in musical memory, are surprisingly preserved in Alzheimer’s (Cavaco et al., 2012; Jacobsen et al., 2015). This detail is well represented in the movie, as Allie, even in the late stages of her condition, still plays the same tune she played much earlier in the film (Chopin’s Prelude Op. 28, No. 4).

Care of the Caregiver

“Alzheimer’s disease strikes families, not individuals” (Masters et al., 2015). When the patient’s condition worsens, their families may strive to care for them for as long as they can. When the patient’s memory loss becomes significant, their families may face the loss of a loved one who is still alive—but can no longer recognize them. This issue is accurately represented in the movie. When Allie’s children and grandchildren come to visit her, they are visibly distraught by the fact that she does not recognize them. When Allie asks Noah, “How much time do we have?” he says, “I’m not sure; last time it was no more than five minutes.” When she ceases to recognize Noah in the middle of their dance, she becomes fearful and agitated and must be sedated. Finally, when their children ask Noah to come home, he refuses, choosing to continue his devoted and Sisyphean attempts to reconnect with Allie. These themes of unyielding love, persistent commitment, and infinite loss resonate with viewers, whether or not they are intimately familiar with the disease. This emotional portrayal aligns with research showing that most Alzheimer’s caregivers—often family members—experience intense stress, relationship strain, and isolation while struggling to care for their loved ones (Vu et al., 2022). Yet, like Noah, many willingly endure these challenges out of profound love and devotion.

Conclusion: Artistic Representation vs. Scientific Accuracy

Although The Notebook is emotionally impactful, it simplifies some aspects of Alzheimer’s disease. At the end of the movie, Allie asks Noah if he thinks that “their love can take them away together,” and they both pass away in each other’s arms. In reality, such moments of clarity in advanced stages are brief, and “happy endings” are rare. Although we met Allie in the late stages of her disease, in reality, symptom progression is gradual and complex. The effects of the disease on Allie’s children are also depicted in a rather superficial fashion compared to the close examination of Noah’s heartbreak over the loss of his love. As such, the film often prefers dramatic storytelling over medical realism. Despite these limitations, the movie serves a valuable purpose by humanizing the disorder and increasing public awareness of the emotional toll it takes on both patients and their families.

References

Carlson, N. R., & Birkett, M. A. (2021). Physiology of behavior (13th ed.). Pearson.

Cassavetes, N. (Director). (2004). The notebook [Film]. New Line Cinema.

Cavaco, S., Feinstein, J. S., van Twillert, H., & Tranel, D. (2012). Musical memory in a patient with severe anterograde amnesia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(10), 1089–1100. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2012.728568

Jacobsen, J. H., Stelzer, J., Fritz, T. H., Chételat, G., La Joie, R., & Turner, R. (2015). Why musical memory can be preserved in advanced Alzheimer's disease. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 138(Pt 8), 2438–2450. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awv135

Lane, C. A., Hardy, J., & Schott, J. M. (2018). Alzheimer's disease. European Journal of Neurology, 25(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.13439

Masters, C. L., Bateman, R., Blennow, K., Rowe, C. C., Sperling, R. A., & Cummings, J. L. (2015). Alzheimer's disease. Nature Reviews. Disease Primers, 1, 15056. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2015.56

Scheltens, P., De Strooper, B., Kivipelto, M., Holstege, H., Chételat, G., Teunissen, C. E., Cummings, J., & van der Flier, W. M. (2021). Alzheimer's disease. Lancet (London, England), 397(10284), 1577–1590. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32205-4

Sparks, N. (1996). The notebook. Warner Books.

Vu, M., Mangal, R., Stead, T., Lopez-Ortiz, C., & Ganti, L. (2022). Impact of Alzheimer's Disease on Caregivers in the United States. Health Psychology Research, 10(3), 37454. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37454

Catherine Moyer is currently a senior at Saint Francis University in Loretto, Pennsylvania, double-majoring in psychology and criminal justice. Her academic interests center on understanding human behavior, particularly within the criminal justice system. After graduation, Catherine plans to pursue a master’s degree in criminal psychology, work as a criminal psychologist, and eventually earn her PhD in psychology. Her passion for the field is fueled by a desire to support and advocate for individuals impacted by crime and trauma. Outside of academics, Catherine enjoys writing, painting, and hiking. She is especially grateful for the continued support of her friends, family, and her dog Apollo. Please feel free to email her at cxm423@francis.edu if you have any questions.

Brooke Benson is currently a Saint Francis University, Loretto, Pennsylvania, alumnus who completed a bachelor’s degree in psychological sciences with minors in sociology and social work. Having an interest in human behavior and connections, she plans to further her education with a master’s degree in social work this upcoming fall. Her desire for children to be understood and to progress motivates her to continue studying and working towards her ultimate goal of becoming a child development specialist. Aside from schooling, Brooke enjoys spending time with family and friends who continue to support her, working out, and reading. She is available at bmb401@francis.edu if you have any questions.

Dr. Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg is an associate professor of psychology at Saint Francis University, where she also serves as the coordinator of the animal-assisted health and education minor and as a cocoordinator of the interdisciplinary neuroscience minor. Her research interests include the neurobiological mechanisms underlying mood and anxiety disorders, the mutually beneficial effects of the human-animal bond, and the impact of training on the adoption outcomes of shelter animals. She enjoys hiking and spending time with animals. Email her at sfgrinberg@francis.edu

“I miss you,” my cousin texts me as I look at my phone and don’t reply. I miss me too. I miss how things used to be, how I used to be. I am not who I was, OCD has changed me. I used to be confident in myself and my abilities. I used to like who I was. I spent my whole life volunteering, doing community service, and dedicating my career to help others. I spent 8 years every Thursday volunteering at a hospital in pediatric oncology and sitting by patients’ bedside as they got chemo, trying to distract them from fear and life’s worries. I won Junior Volunteer of the Year, was president of my college’s psychology national honors society and did well in school. But none of that mattered, it was the old me. The new me is filled with shame, self-doubt, hopelessness, and disgust. The old me would spend hours playing hide n go seek with my little niece and nephew while the new me can’t even touch them. It’s been 3 years since I hugged my family. This is life with severe contamination OCD.

I don’t believe others when I receive compliments. I think, “If only they really knew who I was, then their mind would change.” I smile in sarcasm as I talk to guys on dating apps and they want to meet in person because they like me. They like who I portray to be. How could any guy like a girl who washes her hands 200+ times per day, who showers for hours, who grimaces at the thought of a handshake, and who wears gloves just to touch a pen. How could a guy affectionately love someone who can’t stand to be touched, who Clorox wipes her body down when she bumps into something, and who changes her clothes 10x per day because she fears it touched the kitchen sink. OCD has made me hard to love to the point I fear it’s made me unloveable.

I know everyone comes with baggage, no one is perfect, and everyone has their flaws. It’s a part of who they are, but it isn’t who they are. After living with OCD for so many years, I believe the boundaries have been blurred. I can’t always tell when it’s my OCD talking vs me. I’ve viewed my family as contaminated for so long, I don’t know how they’ll ever be clean again. I fear OCD has tattooed my mind and permanently changed my thinking. Do I really not like being touched, or is it my OCD? Do I not want to hold my cute baby nephew, or is it my OCD? I don’t know, but I’m determined to find out.

“You’re getting too old for this, you’re almost 30,” my dad yells at me as I grab a Lysol wipe to wipe down my chest. If only mental illness expired after a certain age. My friends my age are married, successful, and having kids while I’m taking a 2-hour shower because I touched a cabinet door handle. I know I shouldn’t compare myself, but it’s hard not to. With social media, everyone’s life looks perfect, but I realize it’s only what they portray and not reality. If you looked at my Instagram, you would think I have it all together till you see my secret second OCD Instagram account and realize that’s not the case.

When I doubt myself, I try to reflect on what I value and who I am beyond OCD because there is a beyond. We have mental illness, but we are not our mental illness. I am a “germaphobe” as some people may say, but beyond that I am compassionate, kind, a hard worker, and sometimes even funny. I truly care about others and want to lessen the burden they carry as I know it gets so heavy. So when you’re alone in your room and doubting your self-worth or you receive a compliment and automatically think it’s false, pause for a moment and remember that you are an amazing individual who is strong and hasn’t made it this far by luck but by dedication and resilience. You’re a fighter, so keep on going and know you’re worth it. If you keep on saying it, eventually you’ll believe it! I’m trying to do the same and know that we are all a work in progress.

Written by Victoria, a 29-year-old battling severe contamination OCD, GAD, and emetaphobia. For contact information, email beachsunsaturday@gmail.com.

Mamma Mia! is a splashy musical rom-com set on a fictional Greek island and based on the music of Swedish pop group ABBA (Lloyd, 2008). The story follows 20-year-old Sophie Sheridan (a young woman searching for her biological father in the weeks leading up to her wedding) and her single mother, Donna (who has always avoided talking about Sophie’s father). Desperate to learn more about her heritage, Sophie reads Donna’s diary from the summer before she was born and identifies three paternal prospects. She then invites all three men (Sam Carmichael, Harry Bright, and Bill Anderson) to attend her upcoming wedding to Sky. Sophie expects to be able to identify her father upon seeing him, but each interaction with the three men turns her head in a different direction. Donna, unsurprisingly, is not thrilled at being revisited by three male ghosts of her past and hijinks ensue. With the support of their closest girlfriends and one another (well, most of the time…), Sophie and Donna set out on a journey of discovery. Along the way, they explore topics of identity, the impact of parent/child relationships, the struggle of facing the past to move ahead, and the strength and empowerment of female relationships.

The Search for Identity

Cause everything is new
And everything is you
And all I've learned
Has overturned
What can I do?
“Lay All your Love on Me”

Identity is shaped by a complex interplay of values, experiences, and influences both internal (such as family and culture) and external (environmental factors; Identity, n.d.). Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory outlines eight stages across the lifespan, each centered on a critical conflict that drives social and psychological growth (Cherry, 2024, Erikson, 1950). At age 20, Sophie stands on the threshold between adolescence (ages 12–18), where the primary task is forming a cohesive sense of self, and emerging adulthood (ages 19–25), where the focus shifts to establishing intimate, meaningful relationships. Her yearning for the traditional image of a father walking her down the aisle (despite having been raised by a single mother) exemplifies the power of affective imagery, emotionally charged mental symbols that deeply influence identity and emotions (Glaser, 2019). In line with Erikson’s view that adolescence is a time of identity exploration (Erikson, 1950), Sophie’s wedding represents a symbolic stage where she attempts to align idealized cultural narratives with her personal reality. As she moves into emerging adulthood, the unresolved tension between this ideal and her lived experience complicates her capacity for intimacy and commitment, illustrating Erikson’s assertion that unresolved identity conflicts can hinder one’s ability to form deep connections in adulthood.

On the eve of their wedding, Sophie and Sky’s relationship is tested when she confesses that she invited all three potential fathers without telling him. For Sophie, this is more than just a whimsical or impulsive choice, it stems from a pressing need to resolve the question of her identity before fully committing to marriage. While she outwardly presents confidence in their future together, the subtext reveals a mix of fear, uncertainty, and the developmental challenges faced by young couples moving from adolescence toward adulthood. Sophie believes that knowing her father might help her craft a clearer self-image, one that aligns with the idealized life she envisions and, perhaps, safeguard her from repeating Donna’s struggles. Psychologists note that identity involves both self-perception and the way one is perceived by others, with behavior often shaped by these perceptions (Glaser, 2019). Sophie’s quest is, in part, an attempt to project a coherent, socially affirmed identity that would dissolve her doubts about the wedding. Sky, however, resists this idealization, frustrated that their relationship is being overshadowed by unresolved questions from Sophie’s past. Don’t worry though, Sophie ultimately recognizes that moving forward does not require fully closing every chapter of her past, allowing her to embrace both her relationship with Sky AND her evolving sense of self… regardless of who her father is.

Family Dynamics

Slipping through my fingers all the time
Do I really see what's in her mind
Each time I think I'm close to knowing
She keeps on growing.
“Slipping Through My Fingers”

Family dynamics and the complex, often messy, yet profoundly beautiful relationship between mother and daughter lie at the heart of Mamma Mia! (Lloyd, 2008). Donna’s backstory (revealed through context and the sequel) shows a young woman abandoned by her own mother after becoming pregnant in her early twenties. Young, frightened, and isolated on a foreign island, Donna and Sophie’s bond was forged out of necessity, creating a deeply intertwined relationship rooted in love and mutual dependence. As Sophie approaches adulthood, eager to explore her independence and identity beyond their close-knit world, Donna’s fear of losing her daughter becomes palpable. This fear highlights Donna’s overprotective demeanor which becomes apparent when she questions Sophie’s decision to get married. Donna’s tone and behavior while preparing for the wedding reveal her reluctance about the young couple and fear that Sophie might get hurt. Donna’s protectiveness intensified when she discovered that the three potential fathers were back from her past.

Donna and Sophie’s dynamic can be framed through attachment theory, which emphasizes that the quality of early caregiving relationships shapes our internal working models of self and others, influencing all future emotional bonds (Bowlby, 1982). Donna’s consistent love and support helped Sophie form a secure attachment, characterized by a sense of safety and trust that enabled Sophie to confidently explore her world and pursue meaningful relationships (e.g., her love for Sky, her friendships with Ally and Lisa). Attachment theory helps explain how these early bonds provide a "secure base," allowing individuals to explore their environment and form healthy connections (Mcleod, 2025). Despite Donna’s anxieties, her nurturing presence laid the emotional foundation for Sophie’s resilience and capacity for intimacy.

The mother-daughter relationship in Mamma Mia! also exemplifies how attachment bonds often evolve with the child’s developmental needs, initially characterized by deep interdependence and later challenged by a drive for autonomy, while highlighting the emotional negotiation and love that underpin this lifelong connection (Theisin et al., 2018). There is a beautiful scene where Sophie and Donna are preparing for Sophie’s wedding as ABBA’s “Slipping through my fingers” plays in the background. From drying Sophie’s hair to painting her nails to kissing the boo-boo on her knee from shaving - every second in this scene is a reflection of the love and bond between this mother-daughter duo. Their special bond, that has transformed and been nurtured by Donna over time, is what gives Sophie the courage and confidence to explore life and now take risks as a young adult. Studies have shown that a mother’s role has a significant impact on a daughter’s self-esteem. It is believed that when mothers show support and a genuine interest in their daughter’s choices and ideas, they develop a more positive self-esteem and psychological well-being (Onayli & Erdur-Baker, 2013). This relationship also reflects how past familial experiences (e.g., Donna’s rejection by her own mother) can influence caregiving behaviors, yet through sensitive attunement, love, and support, secure attachment and healthy psychological development are made possible. Sophie’s journey is a testament to the enduring impact of a secure mother-daughter bond in navigating the complexities of emerging adulthood and identity formation.

Embracing the Past and Moving Forward

I have a dream
A fantasy
To help me through
Reality
And my destination
Makes it worth the while
Pushing through the darkness
Still another mile.
“I Have a Dream”

Much of the film explores the theme of transitioning from letting go of the past to moving forward with the future. This transition can be explained by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which explains how people move from focusing on basic needs (e.g., food and safety) to pursuing deeper goals (e.g., belonging, esteem, and ultimately self-actualization). When foundational needs are met, individuals are free to seek personal growth and fulfillment, which shapes their subsequent behavior and choices (Maslow, 1943). Donna’s journey exemplifies this progression: faced with raising her daughter alone and running a struggling hotel, Donna spends years grappling with survival and stability. Only after developing strong friendships and reconciling past regrets does she begin to cultivate a sense of acceptance and fulfillment in her life, showing growth beyond mere survival.

Sophie's story also reflects Maslow’s stages, particularly as she seeks identity and belonging by searching for her father before her wedding. Her interactions with Donna and the three potential fathers highlight a movement from uncertainty and longing toward closure and connection, ultimately meeting her psychological need for familial belonging. As the story unfolds, Sophie demonstrates self-esteem and confidence, making significant life decisions and embracing change. Ultimately, both Donna and Sophie embody self-actualization (Maslow’s ultimate goal) by finding meaning in their experiences, forging new relationships, and embracing the future with hope and openness. The film’s joyful resolution reinforces how fulfilling deeper needs shapes one’s behavior and choices, allowing the characters to let go of regret and pursue personal growth.

Female Empowerment

You can dance, you can jive
Having the time of your life
Ooh, see that girl, watch that scene
Digging the dancing queen.
“Dancing Queen”

In addition to themes of identity and family, Mamma Mia! also presents a fascinating view of feminism as a film that actively challenges patriarchal norms and centers female agency. Feminism is the way in which we analyze social structures between men and women acknowledging the oppression of women. Rather than a universal definition that applies to all women, feminism is inherently a personal and individualized construct (Swirsky & Angelone, 2015). The story foregrounds women who are independent, complex, and empowered, rejecting traditional stereotypes that confine women to passive roles. Donna, as a single mother and successful business owner, embodies feminist ideals of self-reliance and unabashed sexual liberation. Her past relationships and choices are depicted without judgment, highlighting a key tenet of feminist thought: a holistic view on women’s sexuality and life choices are their own to define, free from societal shame. Donna’s sexuality represents the societal change in direction from male-centered views to affirming and positive perspectives of female sexuality (Mollen & Stab, 2010). The film also critiques toxic masculinity by showing male characters as flawed and vulnerable, further emphasizing that women are the primary agents of love and desire, reversing the usual male gaze dynamic in cinema. For example, the three potential fathers (Harry, Bill, and Sam) are initially portrayed as idealized masculine figures: a dependable banker, a free-spirited adventurer, and a successful architect. However, as the story unfolds, their vulnerabilities and flaws are revealed. Harry struggles with his identity as a closeted gay man, Bill grapples with loneliness, and Sam carries the pain of divorce. Rather than embodying the stereotypical strong, dominant male roles, these characters show emotional depth and imperfection. This portrayal subverts toxic masculinity by opening space for men to be vulnerable, while emphasizing that women like Donna and Sophie lead the emotional and relational dynamics, reversing the usual male gaze perspective in cinema.

Furthermore, unlike so many stories in today’s media, female relationships are central to Mamma Mia! and exemplify commonly held feminist values of solidarity and mutual empowerment. Rather than portraying women as rivals or secondary characters, the film celebrates sisterhood through the close bonds between Donna and her friends (Rosie and Tanya), Sophie and her friends (Ally and Lisa), as well as the evolving mother-daughter relationship between Donna and Sophie. From the moment Donna, Rosie, and Tanya reunite on the dock, they slip right back into “Donna and the Dynamos,” embracing each other and laughing all the way back to the villa, showcasing their friendship has endured the test of time. After Donna uncovers her past lovers in the goat house, she runs into her room crying and her friends rally to her side, knocking on her door and asking what’s wrong. Their relationship that shares a long history is free of judgement, and filled with genuine care for one another. Sophie has a similar connection with Ally and Lisa, confiding in them about reading her mother’s diary and inviting her potential fathers to the wedding. This is a secret she has not even shared with Sky, yet it is with her girlfriends she is free to reveal everything, confident in their friendship that they will listen, affirm and support her. These connections provide emotional support and collective resilience, demonstrating some of the many ways in which women can be a source of strength for each other, rather than competition (as is often depicted in the media). Female friendships can offer vital social support as these connections contribute to one’s self-esteem and empowerment; it fosters hope by emphasizing how to get through difficult times and encourages agency. Friendships with key traits such as closeness, support, and loyalty have a strong, positive impact on overall well-being (Guerrero et al., 2023). This emphasis on female community aligns with intersectional feminist theory, which values diverse women’s experiences and challenges the isolating effects of patriarchal structures.

Ultimately, Mamma Mia! disrupts traditional gender roles by granting women narrative authority and emotional ownership. Sophie takes control of her life decisions, including the search for her father and planning her wedding, positioning her as an active protagonist in shaping her destiny. Donna also openly expresses her desires and emotions first, subverting the expectation that men must initiate romantic advances. These portrayals underscore feminist critiques of gendered power dynamics, illustrating that women can, and should, define their own futures. In doing so, Mamma Mia! presents a positive and uplifting portrayal of women’s autonomy, complexity, and collective strength within a storytelling tradition often centered on male perspectives.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Mamma Mia!, is more than just a rom-com about a 20-year-old preparing for her wedding. The musical presents themes relatable to many such as the search for an identity, family dynamics, embracing the past and learning to move forward, and women empowerment. The innate desire to understand and define one’s identity is a fundamental part of life that brings about a wide range of feelings and even surprising behavior. Aspects of Sophie’s behavior stems from the powerful family dynamic she shares with her mother. Though identity is shaped by early experiences, it is in moments of reflection on the past and hope for the future, that individuals find the strength to move forward and embrace change. As they navigate life's highs and lows, Sophie and Donna demonstrate that with the support of your family and friends—however you define it—there’s nothing you can’t overcome.

References

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x

Cherry, K. (2024, May 2). Understanding Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Company.

Glaser, J. (2019, July 17). The neuroscience of identity. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/conversational-intelligence/201907/the-neuroscience-identity

Guerrero, M., Longan, C., Cummings, C., Kassanits, J., Reilly, A., Stevens, E., & Jason, L. A. (2022). Women's friendships: A basis for individual-level resources and their connection to power and optimism. The Humanistic Psychologist, 50(3), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000295

Identity (n.d.). Psychology Today. Retrieved August, 2025 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/identity

Lloyd, P. (Director). 2008. Mamma mia! [Film]. Universal Pictures.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McLeod, S. (2025, May 20). Attachment theory in psychology explained. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/attachment.html

Mollen, D., & Stabb, S. D. (2010). Women's sexuality and meaning making. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 23(4), 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720537.2010.502400

Onayli, S., & Erdur-Baker, O. (2013). Mother-daughter relationship and daughter's self esteem. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 327–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.560

Swirsky, J. M., & Angelone, D. J. (2016). Equality, empowerment, and choice: what does feminism mean to contemporary women?. Journal of Gender Studies, 25(4), 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2015.1008429

Theisen, J. C., Fraley, R. C., Hankin, B. L., Young, J. F., & Chopik, W. J. (2018). How do attachment styles change from childhood through adolescence? Findings from an accelerated longitudinal Cohort study. Journal of Research in Personality, 74, 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.04.001

Angelina Dan is a junior in high school from Pennsylvania, where she serves as the founder and president of the Psychology Club at her school. Inspired by her curiosity and passion for understanding human behavior and the mind, she plans to pursue a degree in psychology. Her work as a research assistant analyzing youth experiences and as an intern for an organizational psychologist have deepened her interest in applying psychological theories to enhance the well-being of others and bring positive change to her community. Angelina also serves as a youth board member for Media Power Youth, where she collaborates on projects that promote healthy media use among young people. Outside of academics, she enjoys playing on her high school’s varsity soccer team, taking long walks with her dog, traveling with her family, and reading a variety of genres from memoirs like Educated by Tara Westover to The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Faced with life-altering consequences, Carson could have given up. Instead, he chose to fight back, not only for himself but for others. Early in his recovery, a doctor told him, "If Einstein had a brain injury, he would still be Einstein." These words became a guiding light, reminding Carson that his potential and purpose were still intact, regardless of the mistakes he had made or the challenges he now faced. With determination, Carson returned to school, enrolling at University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio, TX, to pursue a double major in psychology and sociology with a concentration in drug prevention and rehabilitation. His academic work focuses on addiction recovery, trauma-informed care, and disability education—topics that have become deeply personal to him. Carson's journey, however, is not without daily challenges. Due to limited range of motion, he cannot write or type independently. With the support of his mother, who assists him in communicating through writing, Carson continues to share his story and advocate for others. His determination to find every possible path to recovery led him to UT Health Neurology in San Antonio, where he is investigating deep brain stimulation (DBS) as part of a cutting-edge research study. This procedure represents his commitment to "leave no stone unturned" in his pursuit of improved mobility and independence.

While Carson works toward his Licensed Chemical Dependency Counselor (LCDC) certification, he also hopes to serve as a certified peer support specialist. His goal is to work with schools and community organizations to lead honest conversations with high school students and emerging adults about the risks of substance use, the value of making healthy choices, and the power of resilience.

Carson often reflects on how easy it is for young people to make choices without fully understanding the long-term consequences. He remembers the pressures he faced as a teenager and wants to use his experience to help others make different choices. He believes that early intervention through open, supportive discussions can change lives. His goal is to foster peer discussions that promote honesty, connection, and hope." Recovery is more than sobriety—it’s about restoring dignity, hope, and the belief that change is possible," Carson says, "I want young people to know they have the power to make better choices and to believe in their future, even when they feel overwhelmed."

Carson's dedication to service extends beyond personal outreach. Through his involvement in Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology, he is dedicated to advancing psychological research and applying it in meaningful, real-world ways. He believes that combining academic knowledge with lived experience can create lasting change in communities affected by addiction and mental health challenges.

Carson’s story is a powerful example of how personal adversity can become a source of purpose and advocacy. His journey inspires others to believe that even the most difficult challenges can be transformed into opportunities to help others. Through his academic work, personal advocacy, and ongoing recovery, Carson Day continues to make a difference—one student, one conversation, and one life at a time.

In 2024, the Oxford University Press named the term “brain rot” (sometimes written as “brainrot”) the Oxford Word of the Year (Heaton, 2024; Rufo, 2024). But what is brain rot? Brain rot technically has two definitions; the first definition being the degeneration of one’s mental or intellectual state (particularly due to high exposure to low quality online content), and the second definition being the content itself, usually described as idle and intellectually unchallenging, that would lead to this degeneration (Heaton, 2024). While the recent interest in the brain rot phenomena is directly tied to modern internet use, the first recorded use of the term was noted in Henry David Thoreau’s 1854 novel Walden. Thoreau used the term ‘brain rot’ to criticize society’s proclivity to devalue complex ideas in favor of simple ones, which leads to an overall decline in the population’s mental and intellectual effort (Thoreau, 2005).

Recently, people have been tying “brain rot” with Generation Alpha’s digital habits (the generation born between 2013–2025), because Generation Alpha is the first recorded generation to be born into and raised with technology and are often described as being “extremely online.” However, it is also often used with the preceding generation, Generation Z, or “Zoomers,” as well (born between 1997–2013). When discussing Generation Z and Alpha brain rot, the discussion quickly turns to the trends and slang associated with them. This is because much of the Generation Z and Alpha slang comes from the brain rot videos being viewed. Some examples of this slang include “gyatt” (a term expressing strong excitement, surprise, or admiration), “rizz” (charm/abbreviation for charisma), “bussin” (exclamation that indicates appreciation), “drip” (stylish or fashionable), “mewing” (working on one’s jawline), “sus” (abbreviation for suspicious), and “delulu” (abbreviation for delusional), though there are many more words, phrases, and trends to consider (Fox, 2025).

In addition to generational slang, brain rot behaviors can include zombie scrolling (habitual scrolling with no destination in mind), doomscrolling (purposely searching for distressing and negative material), excessive video gaming (addiction to video gaming to the point that real life is affected), phubbing (ignoring others to pay attention to one’s phone, often during conversations), and social media addiction (a persistent urge to constantly check one’s social media); all of which has been observed to be rising in all age groups (Newport Institute, 2024).

What Does the Research Say?

Brain rot and brain rot behaviors have only recently begun to be studied in a scientific sense, so the available research is limited. However, a few notable studies have provided evidence of numerous negative effects that can take place when brain rot occurs. For example, one study examined doomscrolling and found that those exposed to it may frequently become desensitized to negative stimuli, making it harder to experience pleasurable feelings (Satici et al., 2022). This study also found evidence that those engaging in doomscrolling experience higher levels of psychological distress and have an overall lower level of mental well-being (Satici et al., 2022). Another study using survey data also found that those engaging in doomscrolling showed greater mental and physical ill-being, particularly among those with higher levels of problematic news consumption (McLaughlin et al., 2022).

In addition to affecting physical and mental health, brain rot has been shown to affect cognition and attention span. Some research has shown that too much exposure to the internet use may be associated with shorter attention spans for two reasons: the brain’s reward system sends out dopamine when checking one’s phone (which in turn creates an addictive feedback loop), and this repeated exposure can change the grey matter in one’s brain, leading to acute and sustained changes to one’s cognition (Firth et al., 2019). Furthermore, these changes lead to social media addiction, which can negatively affect changes in sleep patterns, including sleep quality, length, and time it takes to fall asleep (Zhang et al., 2023). In fact, this survey study found a significant direct effect between social media addiction and executive functioning, and indirect effects due to these changes in sleep quality and emotional disturbances (Zhang et al., 2023).

This can all add up, leading to affecting peoples’ overall sense of self-worth. Constantly exposing oneself to social media, particularly posts about others’ successes, can lead to a negative sense of self-worth in two major ways:

1. falling into the comparison trap, and
2. beginning the cycle of the hedonic treadmill principle.

The comparison trap is a cycle in which people frequently (and often obsessively) compare themselves to others, often leading to feelings of lower self-esteem, lower self-worth, and loneliness. These comparisons are often used as sources of information to determine how one is doing relative to others (i.e., ability comparison), or how one should behave, think, and feel (i.e., opinion comparison; Verduyn et al., 2020). The hedonic treadmill principle people often chase their happiness by always hunting for the next thing that makes them feel good. New things and events make people experience a burst of happiness, and people adjust their expectations to meet this new level of happiness (Psychology Today, 2025). However, this happiness boost is almost always temporary, so this tendency leads to a cycle of one pursuing the “next big thing” to keep that happiness boost (Psychology Today, 2025). Combined, this can lead to a lower sense of self-worth, which can, in turn, potentially lead to anxiety, depression, and higher levels of stress.

What Do We Do from Here?

So, what can be done to mitigate the effects of brain rot—particularly in our internet-driven society? Fortunately, there are several ways to prevent brain rot. The first and most effective way is to limit one’s screen time, which can be done by scheduling screen time, silencing notifications, and even teaming up with an accountability buddy (Curtis, 2025). Regularly taking digital detoxes is also shown to be helpful and can effectively give one a cognitive reset to help limiting screen time be easier (Curtis, 2025).

Of course, the basics of sleeping well, exercising regularly, practicing mindfulness, and eating a balanced diet are also helpful tips (Curtis, 2025). Limiting multitasking can also decrease screen time as one will be less tempted to take social media breaks due to straining their working memory (Curtis, 2025). Also giving oneself nonscreen related activities, such as reading books, reconnecting with nature, or learning a new skill or new creative hobby can provide one with pleasure without tying that feeling to screen time (Curtis, 2025). Finally, fostering in-person social connections is a wonderful way to prevent brain rot, as face-to-face communication and connection creates deeper emotional bonds, empathy, and possibilities for meaningful conversations and emotional support. These stronger social ties can also improve memory and protect against age-related cognitive decline (Curtis, 2025).

References

Curtis, L. (2025, January 6). 12 habits to prevent “Brain rot.” Health. https://www.health.com/habits-to-prevent-brain-rot-8766150

Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J. A., Steiner, G. Z., Smith, L., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Gleeson, J., Vancampfort, D., Armitage, C. J., & Sarris, J. (2019, May 6). The “online brain”: How the internet may be changing our cognition. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6502424/

Fox, K. (2025, February 11). 55 Gen alpha slang words you need to know to keep from being ‘beta.’ Parade. https://parade.com/living/gen-alpha-slang

Heaton, B. (2024, December 2). “Brain rot” named Oxford word of the year 2024. Oxford University Press. https://corp.oup.com/news/brain-rot-named-oxford-word-of-the-year-2024/

McLaughlin, B., Gotlieb, M. R., & Mills, D. J. (2022). Caught in a dangerous world: Problematic news consumption and its relationship to mental and physical ill-being. Health Communication, 38(12), 2687–2697. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2106086

Newport Institute. (2024, January 10). Brain rot: The impact on young adult mental health. https://www.newportinstitute.com/resources/co-occurring-disorders/brain-rot/

Psychology Today. (2025, March). Hedonic treadmill. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/hedonic-treadmill

Rufo, Y. (2024, December 1). What is brain rot, the Oxford University Press 2024 word of the year? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2n2r695nzo

Satici, S. A., Tekin, E. G., Deniz, M. E., & Satici, B. (2022). Doomscrolling Scale: Its association with personality traits, psychological distress, social media use, and Wellbeing. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 18(2), 833–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-022-10110-7

Thoreau, H. D. (2005). Walden, or, life in the Woods. Digireads.com Pub.

Verduyn, P., Gugushvili, N., Massar, K., Täht, K., & Kross, E. (2020). Social comparison on social networking sites. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.002

Zhang, K., Li, P., Zhao, Y., Griffiths, M. D., Wang, J., & Zhang, M. X. (2023, May 25). Effect of social media addiction on executive functioning: PRBM. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. https://www.dovepress.com/effect-of-social-media-addiction-on-executive-functioning-among-young--peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PRBM

Kaitlyn L. Nasworthy is a magna cum laude Georgia Southern University alumni with a background in social and religious psychology, behaviorism, and sociology studies. Kaitlyn currently works as a Student Accessibility Coordinator at her alma mater and is a current student in their Evaluation, Assessment, Research, and Learning (EARL) M.Ed program. When not at work, Kaitlyn enjoys weightlifting and powerbuilding, reading, writing, and spending quality time with her husband, Kyle, and dog, Abby.

Note: This information is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional diagnosis or treatment by a licensed mental health provider. Emotional abuse involves manipulation, control, and harm to one’s mental well-being and can be difficult to recognize. If you or someone you know is experiencing emotional abuse, support is available. You can reach out confidentially to the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 for help and resources. Your safety and well-being matter.

Overview

In the early 1400s, the Brothers Grimm wrote the fairytale story of Rapunzel, a young woman with long hair held captive in a tower by a witch. Passed down through German literature, this story was centered on Rapunzel’s desire for freedom, her complicated relationship with the woman who kidnapped her, and her ultimate escape. Disney’s 2010 film Tangled is a modern, family-friendly adaptation of the Brothers Grimm tale (Howard & Fogelman, 2010). In Disney’s adaptation, a magical sundrop flower has the power to heal and restore youth. The flower was brewed into a tea to restore the failing health of the pregnant queen as she struggled to deliver her daughter (Rapunzel). Foiled in her attempt to steal the flower (and its youth-giving powers) for herself, the evil Mother Gothel instead stole the young princess, within whom the flower’s magical powers now existed. Fearful of discovery, Gothel hides Rapunzel away in a tower and raises her as her “daughter,” although it is clear that she loves the magic within the child rather than the child herself. Eventually, Rapunzel leaves the tower in the company of the dashing thief Flynn Rider, where she begins to learn about the world outside… as well as the one within. But along with quirky characters, charming songs, and beautiful imagery, we see examples of many psychological constructs including the unhealthy relationship between Mother Gothel and Rapunzel, Gothel’s perceptions of herself, and the complicated ways in which Mother Gothel's mindset and actions impact Rapunzel’s reality.

Emotional Abuse and Manipulation

Stuck in the same place I've always been
And I'll keep wondering and wondering
And wondering and wondering
When will my life begin?

- Rapunzel: When Will My Life Begin?

In Disney’s Tangled, Rapunzel is taken as a baby by Mother Gothel, who conceals the child’s true identity as princess and keeps her isolated in a tower. Because Rapunzel has no memory of her real parents or the outside world, she believes Gothel’s false role as her loving mother, unaware that Gothel’s nurturing facade masks a controlling and emotionally manipulative captivity. In fact, Gothel effectively convinced Rapunzel that the tower was for her own protection. When young Rapunzel asked to go outside, Gothel replied with; “The outside world is a dangerous place, filled with horrible, selfish people. You must stay here, where you're safe” (Greno & Howard, 2010, 16:09).

This is a prime example of psychological manipulation, which can be defined as “involving cleverly or deceptively influencing or controlling someone, often at their expense, using tactics like persuasion, deception, guilt-tripping, and coercion” (Lovering, 2024). Gothel’s repeated insistence that the outside world is dangerous and that Rapunzel must stay inside the tower reframes what is essentially a kidnapping into a supposed act of protection. This distortion of reality feeds Gothel’s self-serving goal of keeping Rapunzel isolated and dependent on her, ensuring she maintains control and access to Rapunzel’s magical hair. Through consistent lies and emotional pressure, Gothel convinces Rapunzel that confinement is necessary for her safety, effectively imprisoning her under the guise of care. Rapunzel, raised to trust and fear Gothel’s warnings, internalizes this false narrative and becomes a dutiful (though ultimately manipulated) child who accepts confinement as her reality. This dynamic highlights how abusers often use psychological manipulation to reshape perceptions and maintain power, often at the severe emotional cost of the victim (Renee, 2024).

Manipulation often goes hand-in-hand with emotional abuse, characterized by persistent harmful words, actions, or behaviors that cause psychological damage. Although it can (but does not have to) include physical violence, emotional abuse often includes threats of violence toward you or your loved ones (Raypole, 2025). We see frequent examples of Gothel emotionally abusing Rapunzel—from her constant manipulation and deception about the dangers of the outside world to her use of guilt and fear to keep Rapunzel isolated and obedient (as discussed earlier). We also see many examples of how Gothel frequently emotionally abuses Rapunzel through belittling and dismissive comments. For example, when Rapunzel tries to bring up the outside world, Gothel abruptly changes the subject and instead focuses on admiring herself in the mirror, saying, “Rapunzel, look in that mirror. You know what I see? I see a strong, confident, beautiful young lady. Oh, look, you're here too” (Greno & Howard, 2010, 14:28). At first, Rapunzel believes Gothel is complimenting her, but the final remark reveals that Gothel is actually boasting about herself, belittling Rapunzel by implying she is an afterthought. This subtle put-down is a clear example of how Gothel undermines Rapunzel’s self-esteem and uses emotional manipulation to maintain control.

Emotional abuse can occur in a variety of relationships, including romantic partnerships, friendships, and even professional dynamics (Evans, 2024). In the case of Rapunzel and Gothel, this abuse takes place within a parent–child context, where the abuser exploits the natural trust and dependence of the child. This dynamic often makes the emotional manipulation even more damaging, as the victim looks to the abuser for love, guidance, and safety, all of which are twisted to control and isolate them. Understanding the unique complexities of emotional abuse in a parental relationship helps highlight the deep impact it has on the development of identity, self-esteem, and the ability to form healthy relationships later in life.

When a teenager or adolescent has been emotionally challenged and abused by someone else, they tend to be more withdrawn, appear doubtful about themselves, and be less willing to participate in activities (Strain, 2025). Rapunzel’s behavior reveals clear signs of withdrawal and uncertainty, likely stemming from her years of isolation and emotional manipulation by Gothel. When the dashing Flynn Rider unexpectedly climbs her tower, she defensively ties him up out of fear and unfamiliarity, showing her hesitation to trust others (although we can hardly blame her considering she had never seen a human other than Gothel). When Rapunzel steps outside the tower for the first time, she exhibits a cycle of anxiety and self-doubt, relying heavily on Flynn’s guidance and struggling to navigate new experiences. Throughout her journey, Rapunzel often hesitates, seeks reassurance, and reacts nervously in social situations, reflecting the deep impact of her sheltered upbringing on her confidence and willingness to engage fully with the world.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

You want to go outside? Why, Rapunzel...
Look at you, as fragile as a flower
Still a little sapling, just a sprout
You know why we stay up in this tower
That's right, to keep you safe and sound, dear
- Mother Gothel: Mother Knows Best

As the movie progresses, the audience can see how Gothel belittles Rapunzel through comments, shows lack of care for her well-being and craves being a centerpiece of attention, all of which align with narcissistic personality disorder. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) identifies NPD as a “complex psychological condition that presents with a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy” (Mitra, 2024). Gothel clearly displays behaviors consistent with all three of these diagnostic criteria for NPD.

Grandiosity is a sense of specialness and self-importance that is not based on personal capability, which Gothel reveals throughout the movie (Raypole, 2021). When Gothel was looking in the mirror after using Rapunzel's hair, she complimented herself and left Rapunzel completely out of it, even though Rapunzel caused her to gain confidence. This shows her desire for admiration and attention, which she inherits from Rapunzel and her hair. This comment was clearly very backhanded and hurtful for Rapunzel, coming from the woman who she believed was her mother. Additionally, narcissists also have a distorted relationship with beauty, power, and success (Biggers, 2022). This is evidenced in the many ways Gothel constantly elevates herself above others, particularly Rapunzel, and sees herself as uniquely entitled to eternal youth and power, which she maintains by controlling Rapunzel’s magical hair. Her grandiosity manifests in how she prioritizes her own needs, such as feeding her ego through self-admiration, frequently at Rapunzel’s expense.

Mother Gothel’s need for admiration is vividly displayed in her obsessive focus on Rapunzel’s magical hair and the power it grants her. Her affection seems entirely conditional, centered not on Rapunzel as a person but on what Rapunzel’s hair can provide. For instance, the scene where Gothel kisses Rapunzel’s hair and declares, “I love you, I love you the most!” (Greno & Howard, 2010, 12:14), is a poignant visual indication that Gothel’s love is directed primarily at the magical properties of Rapunzel’s hair (which benefit Gothel), rather than genuine care for Rapunzel herself. This reflects a narcissistic pattern where admiration is tied to self-benefit, in other words, the admiration Gothel seeks is essentially a form of self-gratification through Rapunzel’s gifted hair. Gothel’s behavior illustrates how narcissists often value others only insofar as they fulfill their own needs, using affection and attention as tools for control and personal gain rather than authentic connection (Drescher, 2025).

Finally, a lack of empathy is often characteristic of NPD, often manifesting as a struggle to understand the needs of others and as a tool for manipulation (as discussed earlier; di Giacomo et al., 2023). Although Gothel’s own needs and demands are consistently prioritized and met through Rapunzel, Rapunzel’s wishes (especially her longing to learn about the outside world and the lanterns that appear annually on her birthday) are routinely dismissed or outright suppressed. For example, Gothel deceives Rapunzel with fearful exaggerations, saying, “The world is dark and selfish and cruel. If it finds even the slightest ray of sunshine, it destroys it!” (Greno & Howard, 2010, 1:16:18). This grim portrayal is grossly exaggerated; Gothel herself frequently leaves the tower and returns unharmed, yet she forbids Rapunzel from exploring beyond, a decision which is driven solely by self-interest. Gothel uses this fabrication to keep Rapunzel trapped, illustrating how individuals with NPD often wield both subtle and overt manipulative tactics to maintain power over others (DeWitt, 2025). Gothel’s inability to empathize allows her to disregard Rapunzel’s feelings and autonomy entirely, prioritizing her own desires above the emotional and physical freedom of the young woman she claims to protect.

Stockholm Syndrome?

Lights will appear
Just like they do on my birthday each year.
What is it like
Out there where they glow?
Now that I'm older,
Mother might just
Let me go
-Rapunzel: When will my life begin?

Throughout the movie, Rapunzel constantly obeys Gothel, believing that her “mother” loves her. Over the years of captivity, Rapunzel develops an attachment to Gothel, unaware that she is actually the victim of an abuser. Rapunzel’s feelings stem from love and a sense of safety, as Gothel is the only maternal figure she has known since infancy. At first glance, this scenario might resemble Stockholm syndrome, defined as “a response some people have toward a captor or abuser, where they develop positive feelings toward them” (Thompson, 2023). However, Rapunzel's case differs significantly from classic Stockholm syndrome because she is unaware that Gothel is deceiving her or that she is being held captive.

Most people with Stockholm syndrome recognize at some level that they are being abused or held against their will but still develop emotional bonds as a survival mechanism. In contrast, Rapunzel’s attachment arises from genuine belief in Gothel’s false narrative of protection and maternal love, not from a coping strategy applied consciously or subconsciously despite awareness of abuse. Stockholm syndrome is also very rare, affecting about 8% of hostage victims (Chandar, 2024). Although Rapunzel shows some behaviors resembling affectionate attachment to an abuser, her experience is better understood as the product of long-term manipulation and isolation rather than the classic syndrome (Alshwaiheen et al., 2025). Rather than forming a bond to survive abuse, she grew up in a manipulative environment where she was made to believe the control she was under was motivated by love and care, not captivity. This distinction is important in understanding the nature of her relationship with Gothel and the psychological impact of such prolonged deception and emotional abuse.

It is surprising that Rapunzel did not display any notable social, cognitive, or language deficits, given what we know from famous real-world cases like Genie’s. Genie, a young girl who endured years of extreme abuse and near-total isolation with almost no human contact, emerged with profound impairments—virtually no language skills, severe social difficulties, and developmental functioning far below her age (Cherry, 2024). Research on such cases shows that prolonged deprivation during critical developmental periods typically results in lasting challenges, including social anxiety, depression, and cognitive delays (Li et al., 2022). By contrast, and despite being held in captivity for most of her life, Rapunzel is depicted as socially engaging, verbally articulate, and quick to adapt to new environments. This contrast is striking and suggests that the fictional portrayal softens the realistic consequences of long-term isolation, perhaps to maintain narrative appeal while still conveying the emotional harm of Gothel’s manipulation.

Conclusion

All those days watching from the windows
All those years outside looking in
All that time never even knowing
Just how blind I've been
- Rapunzel: I See the Light

Ultimately, while Tangled remains a beloved fairy tale, it also reveals darker, more complex themes beneath the surface, specifically the destructive dynamic between an abuser and an unaware victim. Gothel’s treatment of Rapunzel appears as love and affection, but is rooted in selfishness, control, and a profound lack of empathy. Their “mother–daughter” relationship is steeped in psychological abuse, with Gothel’s manipulative tactics and narcissistic traits masking her true motives. By weaving an illusion of care and protection, Gothel traps Rapunzel in a harmful captivity meant solely to serve her own needs. This portrayal is a textbook example of emotional abuse, highlighting how manipulation, deception, and control can be disguised as nurturing, making Tangled a powerful story about the complexities of abuse that can hide in plain sight.

References

Alshwaiheen, N., Saleh, D., & Alani, W. (2025). A case of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) complicated by Stockholm syndrome: A unique psychiatric phenomenon in the context of intimate partner violence. Cureus, 17(4).

Biggers, L. (2022, December 15). 9 signs of narcissistic personality disorder. Duke Health. https://www.dukehealth.org/blog/9-signs-of-narcissistic-personality-disorder

Chandar, S. (2024). Stockholm Syndrome: EBSCO. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/stockholm-syndrome

Cherry, K. (2024, March 13). Who was Genie Wiley? The story of a child deprived of nearly all human contact. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/genie-the-story-of-the-wild-child-2795241

DeWitt, H. (2025, June 10). How do narcissists control you? Recognizing manipulation tactics and protecting yourself. Thriveworks. https://thriveworks.com/blog/how-narcissists-control-you/

di Giacomo, E., Andreini, E., Lorusso, O., & Clerici, M. (2023). The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1074558

Drescher, A. (2025, May 6). Common narcissistic love patterns. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/common-narcissistic-love-patterns.html

Evans, O. (2024, October 10). Signs of emotional abuse in a relationship. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/signs-of-emotional-abuse.html

Greno, N., & Byron, H. (2010). Tangled [Film]. Walt Disney Animation Studios

Li, X., Tu, L., & Jiang, X. (2022). Childhood maltreatment affects depression and anxiety: The mediating role of benign envy and malicious envy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 1–8. https://doi/org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.924795

Lovering, N. (2024, May 14). Dark psychology: Definition, techniques, and more. Psych Central. https://psychcentral.com/disorders/dark-psychology

Mitra, P. (2024, March,1). Narcissistic personality disorder. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32310461/

Raypole, C. (2021, April 28). Grandiosity: Everything you need to know. Psych Central. https://psychcentral.com/blog/grandiosity-and-delusion-grandeur

Raypole, C. (2025, May 2). Emotional abuse: What it is and signs to watch for. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/signs-of-mental-abuse

Renee, B. (2024). Psychological manipulation: EBSCO. EBSCO Information Services. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/psychological-manipulation

Strain, J. (2025, June 18). Understanding emotional abuse in teenagers. Mission Prep Teen Treatment. https://missionprephealthcare.com/mental-health-resources/abuse-and-trauma/emotional-abuse/

Thompson, J. (2023, December 4.). Stockholm Syndrome explained. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-stockholm-syndrome

Aila Kapllanaj is a second-year biochemistry major with a neuroscience minor at Holy Family University, originally from Albania. After college, she wants to be in the medical field specializing in orthopedics. Outside of school, she likes to write and hang out with friends and family.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The Storyline

You’re Not You (2014), directed by George C. Wolfe, is based on the 2006 novel of the same name by Michelle Wildgen. This moving film tells the story of a classical pianist named Kate (played by Hilary Swank) who is diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). As her condition deteriorates, Kate and her husband Evan (played by Josh Duhamel) seek a caregiver for Kate. Despite her improper language, coarse demeanor and irresponsible lifestyle, the inexperienced Bec (played by Emmy Rossum) is chosen by the calm and composed Kate as her guardian. Progressively losing her daily functions, Kate must learn to rely on Bec, while gaining the opportunity to channel Bec’s spirited attitude towards the creation of new adventures and formation of novel friendships. Bec, on the other hand, must learn that despite everything she ever thought or heard, she is capable, competent, and trustworthy. Navigating through Evan’s infidelity and facing Kate’s inescapable prognosis, the two form a relationship that overpowers Kate’s fear of being a burden to the people around due to her disease and allows Bec to accompany Kate till the very end, as she takes her last breath.

The Diagnosis of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

The movie revolves around the diagnosis and prognosis of ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. Although it was first identified by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (Kumar et al., 2011), the disease gained international recognition in 1939 when it ended the career of the New York Yankees baseball’s player Lou Gehrig (ALS Association, n.d.). ALS is categorized as a neurodegenerative disorder, given that its course involves progressive deterioration of neurons, decline of brain functions, and associated deficits in behavior. Attacking the spinal cord and cranial nerve motor neurons, these cells lose their ability to communicate with the body’s muscles, and the brain fails to initiate and control voluntary movements.

Although the movie does not discuss the possible causes of ALS, it is important to note that while 90% of cases are sporadic (of random, unknown origin), 10% of cases are hereditary. Genetic mutations associated with ALS include the gene for superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), an antioxidant enzyme protecting the cell from reactive oxygen species toxicity. As this mutation leads to the aggregation or clumping of misfolded, dysfunctional proteins within the neuron, it interferes with communication within the neuron (axonal transport) and leads to mitochondrial dysfunction. Recently, the mutation was found to modulate glucose signaling and take part in RNA binding. Consequently, the mutation causes excitotoxicity, degeneration, and eventually apoptosis (programmed cell death) of motor neurons (Bunton-Stasyshyn et al., 2015; Carlson & Birkett, 2021). Riluzole, the most common pharmacological treatment for ALS, decreases glutamate (an excitatory neurotransmitter) levels, thus reducing glutamate-induced excitotoxicity and neuronal death, ultimately extending the life span by a few months (Carlson & Birkett, 2021). Based on the statistics and given that no family history of ALS in Kate’s family is mentioned in the movie, we can hypothesize that Kate’s disease is of the sporadic type.

The Depiction of ALS in the Movie

We can see some of the early symptoms of ALS (e.g. muscle stiffness, twitching, and weakness) in the movie when Kate, a gifted pianist, misses a cord (which immensely surprises her friends) and drops a glass. More advanced symptoms, such as slurred speech/trouble speaking, difficulty chewing or swallowing (associated with weight loss), muscle spasticity (associated with tense muscles and stiff posture), and progressive weakness are seen later on as Kate loses her ability to walk, lift her arms, and complete her daily routines. She struggles to talk clearly and loudly, has her food blended for her so she can consume it with a straw, and experiences visible weight loss. Terminal stages of ALS include severe muscular atrophy and paralysis (which spares eye muscles but affects respiratory muscles), leading to respiratory failure (Carlson & Birkett, 2021; National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2024). At this stage, artificial breathing (first non-invasive and later invasive) can be provided, feeding can be handled via feeding tube, and communication can be supplemented through speech-generating devices like eye-tracking or brain-computer interface systems (NINDS, 2024; Your ALS Guide, n.d.). In the movie, we follow Kate’s heartbreaking decision to refuse these interventions and go home, where she eventually passes away. Somewhat surprisingly, Kate is still able to speak the night she dies, which is realistically questionable given the grave progression of her condition, specifically the progressive paralysis of the muscles used in speech.

Although the movie provides a relatable visualization of the disease’s progression, its diagnosis in Kate represents a relatively uncommon patient demographic. While Kate appears to be in her mid-30’s, the symptoms of ALS she experienced are commonly developed after the age of 55, and men are slightly more likely to develop ALS compared to women (ALS United North Carolina, n.d.; NINDS, 2024). Kate and Bec’s friend Marylin, an African American woman diagnosed with ALS, also represents a slight deviation from common demographics, as White and non-Hispanic individuals are at higher, almost doubled, risk to develop the disease compared to other races (for statistical information, see ALS United North Carolina, n.d.; NINDS, 2024).

To Summarize

You’re Not You is a touching film, which portrays what life is like with ALS in a kind and nonmelodramatic fashion. It concentrates on the need for support throughout the progression of the disease and expands on what that support can look like from its traditional physiological form to include the need for loving and respectful relationships. As Kate is slowly losing her function, control, and identity to her disease (a theme which may be reflected in the title You’re Not You), the movie highlights the need to support individuals facing terminal illnesses as they struggle to maintain dignity and autonomy, be treated like a person rather than just a patient, and to be truly seen throughout their journey. With the support of loving friends and family, the hope is that patients with ALS do not feel as if they have lost their identity to their disease.

References

ALS Association (n.d.). Lou Gehrig and the History of ALS. Retrieved May 20, 2025, from https://www.als.org/understanding-als/lou-gehrig

ALS United North Carolina (n.d.). ALS Statistics: Understanding the Impact and Trends. Retrieved August 4, 2025, from https://alsnc.org/als-statistics-understanding-the-impact-and-trends/

Bunton-Stasyshyn, R. K., Saccon, R. A., Fratta, P., & Fisher, E. M. (2015). SOD1 Function and its implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathology: New and renascent themes. The Neuroscientist, 21(5), 519–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858414561795

Carlson, N., & Birkett, M. (2021). Physiology of behavior (13th Ed). Pearson.

Kumar, D. R., Aslinia, F., Yale, S. H., & Mazza, J. J. (2011). Jean-Martin Charcot: The father of neurology. Clinical Medicine & Research, 9(1), 46–49. https://doi.org/10.3121/cmr.2009.883

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (July 19, 2024). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). National Institute of Health. Retrieved April 12, 2025, from https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis-als

Wildgen, M. (2006). You’re not you. St. Martin’s Press.

Wolfe, G. (Director). (2014). You’re not you [Film]. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment.

Your ALS Guide (n.d.). Invasive mechanical ventilation. Retrieved May 20, 2025, from https://www.youralsguide.com/invasive-mechanical-ventilation.html

Isabelle Branecky is an undergraduate student at Saint Francis University in their physician assistant program. She is working towards minors in biology and neuroscience. She enjoys working with children with serious illnesses in the summers and loves to be artistic, hike, and play guitar in her free time.

Dr. Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg is an associate professor of psychology at Saint Francis University, where she also serves as the coordinator of the animal-assisted health and education minor and as a cocoordinator of the interdisciplinary neuroscience minor. Her research interests include the neurobiological mechanisms underlying mood and anxiety disorders, the mutually beneficial effects of the human-animal bond, and the impact of training on the adoption outcomes of shelter animals. She enjoys hiking and spending time with animals. Email her at sfgrinberg@francis.edu

Higher education faces unprecedented challenges, with declining enrollments and mounting skepticism toward academic institutions. Yet psychology programs have a unique opportunity to demonstrate their value by doubling down on what makes them essential: training students to think scientifically about human behavior in an age when such skills have never been more critical.

Consider the stakes. Every day, students encounter claims about human nature through social media, podcasts, and popular culture. Many of these ideas sound plausible but lack scientific support. When psychology majors graduate believing that we only use 10% of our brains or that opposites attract in relationships, we risk missing an opportunity to prepare them—and society—for informed decision making. When students are more focused on “pop psychology” short-form videos from individuals with no psychology experience, they are risking the harmful effects of misinformation and its ability to spread. Harris and colleagues (2021) state that mental health content creators are “relatable and informative,” yet are typically “glamorization and generalization of mental health issues” and “highlight the need for broader research across platforms” due to their lack of experience as professionals in the field. As Bernstein and colleagues (2025) emphasize, these misconceptions don't just affect test scores; they influence how future parents, teachers, journalists, and policymakers make decisions that impact entire communities. Those who look for accurate information should look upon professionals, and professionals should be firm and accurate in their findings.

The solution isn't simply teaching more facts, but developing scientific thinking skills from day one. When students learn to ask, "What's the evidence?" and "How was this study conducted?" they become equipped to navigate our information-rich world. Simple classroom innovations can make a profound difference. Laurin and Kelly (2025) found that having students create and share infographics debunking psychological myths not only reduced their own misconceptions but increased their appreciation for critical thinking—a skill that transfers far beyond psychology. For example, those who do not look deeper may assume that increased mental illness or diagnoses for conditions such as autism spectrum disorder may indicate the rise of a mental health crisis, which is not correct. Autism diagnoses have increased due to “improved screening and diagnostic practices” and “increased public awareness” (Shaw, 2025, as cited in the American Psychological Association, 2025).

This scientific emphasis also serves students' career prospects. Today's challenges—from climate change to healthcare disparities to technology addiction—all involve human behavior at their core. The APA's Task Force on Psychology as a STEM Discipline (Bray, 2010) recognized that these "grand challenges" cannot be solved without understanding how people think, feel, and act. Psychology graduates who can design studies, analyze data, and communicate findings clearly are positioned to contribute to solutions across countless fields.

Perhaps most importantly, psychology programs can produce graduates who serve as bridges between scientific knowledge and public understanding. In an era when skepticism about science undermines trust in expertise, we need professionals who can translate research into accessible insights and counter misinformation with evidence-based reasoning.

The path forward requires intentional curricular choices that elevate scientific methods alongside psychological content. By training undergraduates as scientist-citizens, psychology programs prepare graduates who not only succeed in diverse careers but also strengthen society’s ability to make evidence-based decisions. When these students carry their skills into classrooms, clinics, newsrooms, and legislatures, they become bridges between research and public understanding. In a time when misinformation threatens trust in expertise, psychology’s emphasis on scientific thinking offers more than educational reform—it provides a vital contribution to civic life and the resilience of societies that depend on informed decision making.

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Educational psychology promotes teaching and learning. https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/teaching-learning

American Psychological Association. (2025, September 1). Correcting misinformation about autism. Monitor on Psychology, 56(6), 24. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/09/advocate-autism-wave-misinformation

Bernstein, D. A., Uttl, B., Cameron, E. L., Herold, D., Khanna, M. M., LaCaille, R., Lamana-Finn, K., Redifer, J., McBride, E., Stanley, C. M., Uruena-Agnes, A., & McGee, J. (2025). Harnessing the power of introductory psychology to combat misconceptions about psychology. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 24(2), 134–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/14757257251329949

Bray, J. H., & APA Presidential Task Force on the Future of Psychology as a STEM Discipline. (2010). Psychology as a core science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) discipline. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/stem-report.pdf

Harris, J., Atkinson, A., Mink, M., & Porcellato, L. (2021). Young people’s experiences and perceptions of YouTuber-produced health content: Implications for health promotion. Health Education & Behavior, 48(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198120974964

Laurin, J. N., & Kelly, A. E. (2025). The use of refutational infographics and group sharing to combat psychological myths and promote critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 52(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/00986283251352543

In today’s world of shifting educational priorities and debates over what and how students should be taught, the contribution of psychological science stands as a steady guide. While misinformation about learning styles or “quick tricks” spreads easily on social media, the field of educational psychology reminds us that effective teaching and learning must be grounded in decades of rigorous, evidence-based research (American Psychological Association, 2014).

From the earliest ideas of Freud’s unconscious mind to B.F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning, psychology has long shaped how educators think about learning. Today, this influence continues through research that not only explains how students process information but also addresses how schools can provide equitable opportunities for all learners. As Bell and colleagues (2020) emphasize, higher education impacts far more than academic skills: It also shapes attitudes, values, identity, and even long-term health and well-being.

One major area of research is cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2011), which examines how the limits of working memory affect learning. Novel material can overwhelm working memory, but techniques such as schema building and chunking help learners connect new content to what they already know, easing the burden on working memory (Kotovsky et al., 1985). Retrieval cues are another scientifically validated method for reinforcing memory, helping students recall information more effectively during high-pressure situations such as exams (Brown et al., 1978). These findings push back against simplistic claims about “learning hacks,” reminding us that true progress in education emerges from tested strategies, not shortcuts.

Psychological science also helps educators understand and meet the diverse needs of students. Research shows that targeted mentorship programs for underrepresented students increase confidence, reduce stress, and improve preparation for graduate study (Burko Macatee et al., 2025). Inclusive pedagogy and culturally competent teaching practices further support success by recognizing that students bring different experiences and challenges into the classroom (Bell et al., 2020). At the same time, many supervisors still lack training to provide accommodations, which can create barriers for students with disabilities. Wilbur et al. (2019) emphasize that treating disability as part of diversity is central to equity in education.

Educational psychology shows that when we invest in evidence-based approaches—whether in classroom design, mentorship, or inclusive teaching—we empower students not only to learn more effectively but also to thrive as whole individuals. In an era where skepticism toward science can undermine progress, psychology’s contributions to education stand as proof that rigorous research leads to better outcomes for all learners.

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Educational psychology promotes teaching and learning. https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/teaching-learning

Bell, E. Z., Bowman, A. N., Rivers, L. M., & Soicher, N. R. (2020). Using psychological science to improve higher education (2020). Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6(2), 93–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tps0000233

Brown, A. L., Smiley, S. S., & Lawton, S. Q. C. (1978). The effects of experience on the selection of suitable retrieval cues for studying texts. Child Development, 49(3), 829–835. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128253

Burko Macatee, J. A., Silverstein, M. W., & Gomez, M. M. (2025). Increasing representation in psychological sciences: Evaluating immediate and long-term outcomes of a virtual mentoring program for racial and ethnic minority students. Training and Education in Professional Psychology. Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tep0000519

Kotovsky, K., Hayes J. R., Simon H. A. Why are some problems hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi. Cognitive Psychology, 17(2), 1985, 248–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(85)90009-X

Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In J. P. Mestre & B. H. Ross (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education (pp. 37–76). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8

Wilbur, R. C., Kuemmel, A. M., & Lackner, R. J. (2019). Who’s on first? Supervising psychology trainees with disabilities and establishing accommodations. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 13(2), 111–118. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tep0000231

In an era where scientific expertise faces increasing skepticism and misinformation spreads rapidly through social media, the rigorous research behind family psychology offers a compelling reminder of why evidence-based practice matters. When families are struggling—whether with anxiety, trauma, or relationship conflicts—they need more than well-meaning advice or viral parenting hacks. They need interventions grounded in decades of careful scientific study.

Family systems theory exemplifies how psychological science transforms our understanding of human relationships. Rather than relying on intuition alone, researchers like Cox and Paley (1997) have systematically documented how family members influence each other’s well-being, demonstrating how a shift in one family member’s functioning can ripple across the entire system. This scientific framework has revolutionized therapeutic practice, moving beyond simplistic approaches to embrace the complexity of family dynamics (Yan et al., 2025).

The power of empirical research becomes evident when examining specific interventions. Family-based cognitive behavioral therapy did not emerge from philosophical speculation—it developed through rigorous clinical trials demonstrating measurable reductions in childhood anxiety, with effects lasting over time (Kendall et al., 2008). Similarly, Family-Centered Care approaches in medical settings have been validated through controlled studies showing improved outcomes for children with intellectual disabilities and enhanced family satisfaction (Mestre et al., 2024).

This scientific rigor proves especially crucial when confronting the oversimplified solutions that proliferate in today’s information landscape. Social media influencers and self-help gurus often promise quick fixes for complex family problems, but psychological science reveals a more nuanced reality. Research consistently shows that effective interventions must be carefully tailored to each family’s unique circumstances and cultural context, as demonstrated in detailed case studies of children with trauma and developmental challenges (O’Donohue & Lilienfeld, 2013).

The stakes extend beyond individual families. Positive psychology interventions that strengthen family bonds and promote resilience have been scientifically validated to enhance not just happiness within homes but also community well-being more broadly (Waters, 2020; Turemuratova et al., 2025). When trust in evidence-based approaches declines, entire communities suffer the consequences.

Ultimately, family psychology demonstrates the power of science to meet human needs in meaningful ways. By helping families navigate conflict, recover from trauma, and build resilience, evidence-based practice strengthens not only individuals but the family system as a whole. Since families are the foundation on which healthy communities are built, the ripple effects extend outward—supporting schools, workplaces, and communities. In a time when skepticism toward science is widespread, the successes of family psychology offer a clear reminder: Rigorous research is not an abstract exercise, but a vital resource that equips families and communities to thrive.

References

Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual Review of Psychology, 48(1), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.243

Kendall, P. C., Hudson, J. L., Gosch, E., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Suveg, C. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disordered youth: A randomized clinical trial evaluating child and family modalities. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 282–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.76.2.282

Mestre, T. D., Lopes, M. J., Mestre, D. M., Ferreira, R. F., Costa, A. P., & Caldeira, E. V. (2024). Impact of family-centered care in families with children with intellectual disability: A systematic review. Heliyon, 10(7). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28241

O’Donohue, W. T., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013). Case studies in clinical psychological science: Bridging the gap from science to practice. Oxford University Press.

Turemuratova, A., Uzakbaeva, U., & Nuriyeva, D. (2025). Basic concepts of family psychology and overcoming psychological problems. Modern Science and Research, 4(4), 104–109. https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/science-research/article/view/78572

Waters, L. (2020). Using positive psychology interventions to strengthen family happiness: A family systems approach. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(5), 645–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1789704

Yan, Y., Duan, X., Tan, Y., Wu, T., Yang, B. X., Luo, D., & Liu, L. (2025). The relationship between family functioning and depressive symptoms: Mediating effects of psychological resilience and parent-child interactions. Journal of Affective Disorders, 385, 119383–119383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119383

Psychological science plays a vital role in shaping public policy and law by grounding decisions in evidence about human thought and behavior. Policymakers increasingly rely on research to design laws and programs that are more effective, fair, and responsive to real-world needs (Antonini & Achilli, 2025). For example, studies on learning have structured education policy, while research on stress and health has informed public health initiatives (Alliant International University, n.d.). Since policy affects education, health, transportation, and safety, psychology’s insights are essential in crafting decisions that improve community well-being.

By understanding behavior, psychologists help lawmakers anticipate how individuals and communities may respond to regulations, allowing for better design, implementation, and evaluation of policies. One visible example is Lisa Willner, PhD, a psychologist and example of professionals bringing psychology into public office, who has applied her expertise to advance mental health, education, and public safety policies. Her work illustrates how blending research with empathy and communication can create laws that promote fairness and support community well-being (American Psychological Association, 2025).

Psychologists also contribute collectively to reforms in housing, early childhood initiatives, and legal rulings. Through advocacy, translation of research, and collaboration with lawmakers, psychology bridges science and governance to address complex social problems and drive systemic change (Siegel et al., 2021).

Within the legal system, psychology has altered how we understand jury decision-making and eyewitness testimony. Research shows that biases, group dynamics, and memory errors can heavily influence verdicts. These findings have prompted reforms such as clearer jury instructions and stricter guidelines for eyewitness evidence (FC PsychExperts, 2025). Forensic psychologists further strengthen the legal process by evaluating competency, assessing mental states, and analyzing behavior in both criminal and civil cases. Their testimony informs sentencing, custody decisions, and parole, while raising important ethical considerations.

One of the most influential contributions to law comes from Elizabeth Loftus’s research on memory. Loftus’s classic research showed that the wording of a question (“smashed” versus “hit”) influenced what details participants remembered—even leading some to report seeing broken glass that never existed. This groundbreaking work revealed the malleability of memory, leading courts to scrutinize eyewitness testimony more carefully (Practical Psychology, 2023).

Ultimately, psychology’s impact extends beyond the lab. Psychologists bring skills in empathy, communication, and cultural understanding that make them uniquely effective as policymakers and leaders—helping to ensure that laws and policies are not only evidence-based but also humane and just.

References

Antonini, M., & Achilli, A. (2025). An integrative pathway between psychology and public policy-making towards the governance of changing social scenarios. Societies, 15(8), 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080229

American Psychological Association. (2025, March 14). Public policy needs psychology. Here’s how to lend your expertise. https://www.apa.org/research-practice/leadership/public-policy-psychology

FC PsychExperts. (2025, August 11). How do forensic psychologists bridge psychology and law? https://www.fcpsychexperts.com/how-do-forensic-psychologists-bridge-psychology-and-law/

Practical Psychology. (2023, October 6). Elizabeth Loftus (psychologist biography). https://practicalpie.com/elizabeth-loftus/

Siegel, J., Arenson, M., Mikytuck, A., & Woolard, J. (2021). Engaging public policy with psychological science. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 7(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000284

“Stranger than you dreamt it, can you even bear to look, or dare to think of me?... This lonesome gargoyle who burns in hell but secretly yearns for heaven secretly, secretly but Christine... fear can turn to love you’ll learn to see to find the man behind the monster this... repulsive carcass that seems a beast but secretly dreams of beauty secretly, secretly…” (Shumacher, 2004).

The Phantom of the Opera originated as a novel by French author Gaston Leroux, first published in 1910. Inspired by rumors of a ghost haunting the Paris Opera House and the real-life use of its underground lake, Leroux crafted a gothic tale blending mystery, romance, and horror. The story has since been adapted into numerous films, plays, and musicals, most notably Andrew Lloyd Webber’s 1986 stage musical, which became one of the longest-running shows in Broadway and West End history. This paper will focus on the 2004 film adaptation (Schumacher, 2004). The Phantom of the Opera tells the story of a mysterious, disfigured musical genius, known as the Phantom, who lives beneath the Paris Opera House and becomes obsessed with a young soprano named Christine Daaé. As the Phantom manipulates events to advance Christine’s career and win her affection, his jealousy and possessiveness lead to increasingly dangerous behavior. Christine, caught between fear, sympathy, and love, must ultimately choose between her growing feelings for the Phantom and her childhood friend, Raoul. Along with being a beloved theater classic, The Phantom of the Opera is rich in psychological themes, including risk-taking behavior, the impact of the collective unconscious, and the dark power of obsessive love.

Obsessive Love and Possession

Perhaps the most salient theme in The Phantom of the Opera is that of obsessive love and possession. Obsessive love can be defined by an unhealthy fixation on another person and a powerful drive to control or possess them (Sissons & Villines, 2023; Tartakovsky, 2023), and is vividly illustrated by the Phantom’s behavior towards Christine. While popular culture and literature often romanticize obsession, conflating it with passion, the two are not the same. Passion is characterized by mutual desire, emotional connection, and a respect for each other’s boundaries; it is a force that brings people together through shared feelings and understanding. In contrast, obsession blurs these lines and becomes one-sided, possessive, and frequently driven by fear, insecurity, or a need for control (Tsaousides, 2016). The Phantom’s actions (such as his relentless pursuit, manipulation, and attempts to dominate Christine’s life) demonstrate how obsession, when mistaken for passion, is actually far more destructive than romantic. This distinction is crucial, as it challenges the audience to recognize the dangers of idealizing obsessive behaviors and to appreciate the importance of healthy, reciprocal relationships.

As the story progresses, the Phantom develops a compulsive fixation on Christine that goes far beyond simple admiration. He views her as something to possess emotionally, physically, and mentally, rather than as an autonomous person. This possessiveness drives many of his actions, such as manipulating her career and attempting to control her choices, often with destructive consequences, like the infamous chandelier crash and the escalating violence within the opera house (Sissons & Villines, 2023). The Phantom’s behavior aligns with attachment theory, which suggests that extreme clinginess or possessiveness in adulthood often stems from insecure attachments formed in childhood, as hinted at in the film’s flashbacks (Tartakovsky, 2023). His intense fear of abandonment and refusal to relinquish his idealized image of Christine highlight the darker side of obsession. The Phantom’s attempts to isolate Christine (including threatening those close to her and orchestrating events to force her dependence) further demonstrate his unhealthy attachment, especially in contrast to Raoul, who represents a healthier, more supportive relationship (Taylor Counseling Group, 2025). In summary, the Phantom’s obsessive and controlling behavior serves as a powerful illustration of how insecure attachment can fuel destructive patterns in relationships, ultimately highlighting the importance of healthy boundaries and mutual respect.

Risk-Taking Behavior

Risk-taking behaviors involve decisions made under uncertainty, considering both positive and negative consequences (Farahani et al., 2022). Influenced by emotional, cognitive, and developmental factors, risk-taking behaviors can range from appropriate and adaptive exploration (e.g., trying out for a sports team) to dangerous activities (e.g., substance abuse, unsafe sex; Buelow, 2020). Risk-taking behaviors in The Phantom of the Opera serve as a psychological lens that highlights how intense desire and psychological instability may outweigh reason… often leading to disastrous results.

One example of risk-taking behaviors is the way the Phantom pursues Christine. While the pursuit of a romantic partner often falls under the category of positive risk taking (Duell & Steinberg, 2019), it can become a negative or maladaptive risk if the behaviors become problematic (as they do for the Phantom). We see the Phantom engage in increasingly dangerous behaviors (e.g., forcing the opera house chandelier to fall into the audience), suggesting that he will go to extreme lengths to achieve his desires (in this case, Christine). Another instance of risk-taking is when the Phantom confronts Christine in his lair, apologizes, and uses the chance to show her his disgusting appearance and the perils of his life in order to make her understand how he feels (Beisswanger et al., 2010). His final demand that Christine pick him, during which he threatens Raoul’s life as part of his manipulative control, is another example of a risk-taking behavior given that he could be rejected. The Phantom’s pursuit of Christine illustrates progressively maladaptive risk-taking, as he engages in increasingly extreme and dangerous behaviors to win her affection.

But the Phantom isn’t the only risk taker in this show: Christine also engages in notable forms of risk taking, though hers often stem from social-emotional needs rather than desire for control. Drawn by the mysterious “Angel of Music,” she repeatedly places herself in physically precarious situations—following a disembodied voice through backstage passageways, boarding a gondola to the Phantom’s underground lair, and later returning alone in hopes of saving Raoul. Each act illustrates sensation seeking and trust, behaviors that can be adaptive when they promote mastery (e.g., expanding her vocal artistry) yet turn maladaptive when her personal safety is compromised. Christine also embraces social and reputational risks: stepping into a starring role despite limited experience, publicly removing the Phantom’s mask, and ultimately defying him to choose her own romantic partner. And let’s not forget Raoul, who takes a great physical risk by facing off against the Phantom. These behaviors illustrate the human tendency to engage in risky, often impulsive, acts because we are motivated by intense emotional needs and a willingness to overlook consequences in order to achieve our personal goals (Farahani et al., 2022). Throughout the story, these high-stakes risk-taking moments highlight the characters’ susceptibility to feel intense emotions and show how psychological turmoil may trump reason, resulting in dangerous and tragically human conduct.

Freud’s Theories of the Mind

According to Sigmund Freud, the mind is divided into the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious (Cherry, 2024). The conscious mind contains thoughts and perceptions we are aware of, while the unconscious holds hidden memories, emotions, and desires that influence our actions without our awareness (Cherry, 2024; McLeod, 2024). Anything that has the potential to enter the conscious mind is considered preconscious (Cherry, 2024). In The Phantom of the Opera (2004), these Freudian concepts are vividly illustrated through the characters and their interactions.

We see components of Freudian concepts throughout the show. The Phantom clearly embodies the unconscious mind; he is a figure shaped by repressed trauma, powerful cravings, and hidden fears. His obsession with Christine reflects his suppressed desires and the darker aspects of his psyche. This aligns with Carl Jung’s idea of the “shadow” archetype, representing the collective unconscious and the universal symbols that influence human behavior (Cherry, 2024). The Phantom’s physical deformity and secretive life symbolize these buried emotions and social rejection. Christine, meanwhile, is torn between her conscious attraction to Raoul and her unconscious fascination with the Phantom (symbolized by his mask). Her conflicted feelings, especially when she kisses the Phantom, reveal the struggle between her rational mind and her hidden desires. The opera house itself acts as a metaphor for the collective unconscious, where the characters’ repressed emotions come to the surface. The Phantom’s “Music of the Night” seduces Christine to embrace her primal instincts, illustrating Freud’s idea of the tension between repression and expression. Throughout the film, unconscious drives shape the characters’ choices and reveal repressed desires in moments of emotional intensity, such as Christine’s trance-like singing or the Phantom’s violent outbursts. Ultimately, the story brings Freud’s psychological theories to life: the opera stage represents the conscious mind, while the labyrinthine catacombs below symbolize the unconscious. This dynamic highlights how hidden desires and unresolved trauma can profoundly influence relationships, moral decisions, and personal identity (Mistry et al., 2024).

Conclusion

The Phantom of the Opera (Shumacher, 2004) is an outstanding psychological examination that is beautifully veiled in dramatic beauty and emotional nuance. This psychologically complex film explores the nature of identity, belonging, and love, and allows for a serious investigation of how emotions can influence our identity, decisions, and interpersonal interactions. The show ultimately challenges viewers to think about how our experience can affect not only our behavior, but also how we perceive love and value. In the end, The Phantom of the Opera serves as a moving reminder that the phantoms we harbor within ourselves are often the most eerie.

References

Beisswanger, A. H., Stone, E. R., Hupp, J. M., & Allgaier, L. (2003). Risk taking in relationships: Differences in deciding for oneself versus for a friend. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 25(2), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2502_3

Buelow, M. T. (2020). Chapter 5 - Anxiety: State-dependent stress, generalized anxiety, social anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Risk Decision Making in Psychological Disorders, 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815002-3.00005-X

Cherry, K. (2024). Freud’s unconscious, preconscious, and conscious minds. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/the-conscious-and-unconscious-mind-2795946

Counseling Group, Taylor. (2025). Possession vs love. Taylor Counseling Group. https://taylorcounselinggroup.com/blog/possession-vs-love/

Duell, N., & Steinberg, L. (2019). Positive risk taking in adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 13(1), 48–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12310

Farahani, F. S., Khosrowabadi, R., & Jaafari, G. (2022). Risk-taking behavior under the effect of emotional stimuli among children and adults. Basic Clinical Neuroscience, 13(4), 585–593. https://doi.org/10.32598/bcn.2021.2508.1

Leroux, G. (1910). The phantom of the opera. Bobbs-Merrill. https://www.abebooks.com/first-edition/PHANTOM-OPERA-Leroux-Gaston-Bobbs-Merrill-Company/31329179294/bd

McLeod, S. (2024). Psychodynamic approach in psychology. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html

Mistry L. N., Neelkanthan, S., Deshpande, S. S., Jawdekar, A. M., Shah, P. P., & Khachane, N. A. (2024) Matters of the mind: A look into the life of sigmund freud. Cureus, 16(10). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.71562

Shumacher, J. (2004). The phantom of the opera [Film]. Entertainment Film Distributors

Sissons, B. & Villines, Z. (2023). What is obsessive love disorder? Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/327098

Tartakovsky, E. (2023). The psychology of romantic relationships: Motivations and mate preferences. Personality and Social Problems, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1273607

Tsaousides, T. (2016). The thin line between passion and obsession: Part 1. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/smashing-the-brainblocks/201610/the-thin-line-between-passion-and-obsession-part-1

Whitbourne, S. (2020). How to manage your partner’s risky behaviors. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fulfillment-any-age/202010/how-manage-your-partners-risky-behaviors

Brianna Shannon recently graduated from Holy Family University with her bachelor's in psychology, minoring in both mental health services and sociology. She continues her studies by participating in the early enrollment program, known as the 4+2 Dual Enrollment Program, for her master's degree in clinical mental health counseling at Holy Family University, with an expected graduation date of 2027. In her free time, she enjoys spending time with friends and family, reading fiction, watching movies, and attending concerts for her favorite artists.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Based on Roald Dahl’s 1988 novel, the 1996 film Matilda portrays a remarkably intelligent six-year-old girl navigating a world in which she is often misunderstood and mistreated. Matilda is raised by her neglectful and self-absorbed parents and subjected to the cruelty of her school’s headmistress, Miss Trunchbull. Despite these things, Matilda manages to find her strength in learning, independence, and the extreme kindness of her teacher, Miss Honey. Although she does portray exceptional intellectual abilities, we must consider the fact that Matilda is still in the crucial stage of early childhood, a period marked by rapid growth in emotional, social, and cognitive development. This article will explore some major constructs of early childhood development (ages 2–6) as seen in the movie Matilda.

Neglectful Parenting: Emotional Absence

Baumrind (1967) identified four primary parenting styles—authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful—each characterized by different levels of responsiveness and demandingness, which significantly influence children's development. If you have seen Matilda, you would likely recognize the neglectful parenting style, also known as uninvolved parenting. This approach to caregiving is characterized by indifference toward a child’s emotional, social, educational, and cognitive needs, with minimal involvement beyond the basic necessities such as food and shelter (Berger, 2024). Neglectful parents often lack responsiveness, fail to establish consistent boundaries, and show limited emotional warmth or attention to the child’s development (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022).

In Matilda, Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood (Matilda’s parents) embody this parenting style by ignoring her intellectual needs, delaying her school enrollment until she practically begs to go, and frequently leaving her to care for herself. In one early scene, Matilda’s parents leave her alone with a can of cold soup in the microwave. Not only is she regularly left alone, but her parents also actively discourage her love of reading and learning. According to developmental research, children raised by neglectful caregivers often display emotional immaturity, loneliness, and poor self-regulation throughout their lives (Berger, 2024). However, despite these barriers, Matilda exhibits remarkable resilience. It’s important to note that Matilda is the exception rather than the rule here—most children of neglectful parents do not show such optimal development. In fact, her development occurs in spite of her parenting environment, not because of it. There are times where she feels alone and like she has no one, until she goes to school. Her story is an example of how early childhood neglect can hinder, but not entirely prevent a child’s developmental potential, especially when that child possesses exceptional resilience and is fortunate enough to find support elsewhere.

Social-Emotional Development

Although Matilda’s character is fictional and uniquely gifted, she still shows common signs of early childhood socioemotional development. For example, Matilda shows a heightened sense of empathy when Miss Honey reveals her traumatic past to her. Matilda listens attentively, comforts her, and even takes steps to help Miss Honey reclaim her independence. Despite being surrounded by copious amounts of negativity in her young life, Matilda displays consistent emotional regulation throughout the movie. Another example is Matilda’s ability to know that Bruce needed encouragement to eat the cake ordered by Miss Trunchbull, despite his obvious embarrassment, reflects her awareness of other people’s emotional needs. This is a sign of her emotional maturity, which as developmental psychology shows, is cultivated through positive interactions with caregivers and role models (Berger, 2024). While, again, Matilda’s homelife could have hindered her emotional growth, she exemplifies the potential for a child to have empathy, even without optimal caregiving. In fact, external sources of support, like Miss Honey, play a crucial role in fostering emotional regulation in children when primary caregivers are unavailable or unsupportive (Thummler et al., 2022). Matilda’s ability to self-regulate really shows the importance as well as the impact of supportive relationships in early childhood.

Executive Function

Executive function is the cognitive ability to prioritize and organize all the thoughts that come from the brain (Berger, 2024). This, in turn, is essential for proper cognitive development during early childhood, involving the child’s ability to organize thoughts, strategize, and plan behaviors (Berger, 2024). Executive function develops particularly rapidly for children ages 2 through 6. This includes three core components: memory, inhibition, and flexibility (Berger, 2024). Matilda shows several signs of strong executive functioning, in all three domains. Memory refers to the ability to recall recent experiences and use them for future decisions (Berger, 2024). In the movie, we see 5-year-old Matilda consistently navigate busy streets with ease as she makes her way to the library. She does this despite her lack of guidance, suggesting that she has a strong sense of direction and a very impressive memory for a child of her age. Inhibition, which is the ability to control impulses, is another important part of executive function, which she showcases as well. This is prevalent throughout the entire plotline of her telekinetic powers. Even though she is very powerful, she also shows strong control over her powers. She does not retaliate or act impulsively toward her parents or Miss Trunchbull when they treat her with cruelty and aggression. Where other children her age may throw tantrums, Matilda remains very calm and controlled. Lastly, is flexibility, or the ability to shift perspectives and adapt to new situations (Berger, 2024). Matilda is very adaptable and flexible in her interactions with her peers and Miss Trunchbull. In the scene where she is singled out in class by Miss Trunchbull (who then goes after Miss Honey), Matilda is quick to use her abilities to defend her classmates and punish Miss Trunchbull. Her ability here to adapt and think quickly once again illustrates the development of her executive function.

Social Relationships

Play is a critical part of learning during early childhood. Mildred Parton identified six stages of play that reflect increasing levels of social interaction (1932). The last stage, cooperative play emerges around age 5 and involves children playing together, taking turns, and creating shared dramas (Berger, 2024). In Matilda, we see cooperative play through her interactions with others, although in Matilda’s case, she interacts more with adults than with peers. Her ability to engage in cooperative play is very closely tied to her emotional and cognitive development, which is influenced by things like her self-regulation, empathy, and emotional intelligence (as discussed prior.) In fact, the development of empathy and self-regulation during childhood and adolescence is crucial for fostering later prosocial behaviors (Martínez-Velázquez et al., 2024). In other words, despite her very young age, Matilda’s emotional maturity allows her to navigate complex and difficult social situations and engage in cooperative play with others, mainly Miss Honey and her classmates.

One clear example of this is Matilda’s collaborations with Miss Honey against Miss Trunchbull throughout the movie. From navigating through her home together, to working together in a coordinated effort to make her leave the school, they clearly have a strong partnership. Additionally, Matilda has many interactions with her peers, one being them getting the newt from outside that eventually ends up in Miss Trunchbull's water, in which they all silently agree is hilarious (shared dramas). Matilda never uses her powers selfishly, but to assist and stand up for those who she cares about. This aligns with the idea that the development of cognitive and emotional skills, like empathy and self-regulation, facilitates cooperative behavior (Martínez-Velázquez et al., 2024). Therefore, Matilda’s telekinetic abilities, though extraordinary, symbolize her emotional intelligence and her growing capacity for cooperative play.

Conclusion

Overall, Matilda’s story is a great example of how early childhood development is shaped not only by the challenges children face, but also by the resources—internal and external—that they have access to along the way. From the neglectful parenting she endures to her impressive and, maybe unexpected, emotional regulation and executive function, we clearly see how Matilda grows in spite of and at times because of the circumstances surrounding her. Matilda eventually finds the nurturing home she deserves when Miss Honey adopts her, and her story serves as a reminder that even in the absence of a positive home environment, positive development is still possible. In this way, Matilda offers not just an unrealistic tale of telekinesis then triumph, but also a lens through which to understand processes of early childhood growth.

References

Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43–88.

Berger, K. S. (2024). The developing person through childhood and adolescence (12th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Dahl, R. (1988). Matilda. Penguin.

DeVito, D. (Director). (1996). Matilda [Film]. TriStar Pictures.

Martínez-Velázquez, E. S., Ponce-Juárez, S. P., Díaz Furlong, A., & Sequeira, H. (2024). Cooperative behavior in adolescents: A contribution of empathy and emotional regulation? Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1342458

Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27(3), 243–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074524

Sanvictores, T., & Mendez, M. D. (2022, September 18). Types of parenting styles and effects on children. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568743/

Thümmler, R., Engel, E. M., & Bartz, J. (2022). Strengthening emotional development and emotion regulation in childhood—As a key task in early childhood education. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 3978. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073978

Lily Marchiafava is a third year English student at Holy Family University with a minor focus in Creative Writing. She is the executive editor of HFUs student-ran newspaper, known as Tri-Lite and is a reader on Holy Family’s literary magazine, Folio. In her free time, Lily loves to read, thrift, and to write introspectively and creatively. She also is fond of nature, particularly things like animals and the sky.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The Breakfast Club is a classic coming-of-age story that follows the emotional and psychological journey of five high school students from different social circles who are forced to spend a Saturday together in detention (Hughes, 1985). The students, Brian, Allison, John, Andrew, and Claire, embody some of the stereotypical “cliques” of adolescence (e.g., the nerd, the jock, the popular kid). As the day of detention unfolds, they begin to open up about their personal struggles, family dynamics, and fears, gradually breaking down the social barriers between them. What begins as a tense and awkward encounter becomes an unexpected opportunity for the reflection, vulnerability, and personal growth that often takes place during the adolescent years.

Nature vs. Nurture

The concept of nature versus nurture explores the ongoing debate about the factors which shape human behavior and personality: our biological makeup (nature) versus our environment and experiences (nurture; Psychology Today, n.d.). While it is common to see the two pitted against one another, developmental scholars now acknowledge that it is more of a “push-and-pull” between the two rather than an “either/or.” When it comes to understanding the role of nature versus nurture in development, the two often work together in complicated and nuanced ways ("Nature vs. Nurture," Psychology Today), many of which are demonstrated in The Breakfast Club.

John, the "delinquent," acts out aggressively and while some might argue this behavior could be influenced by a natural predisposition toward aggression, the film helps to suggest it may also be shaped by his abusive home environment. The “tough” act John puts on is a function of a coping mechanism resulting from nurture, not necessarily nature. Similarly, Claire, the "princess," conforms to the expectations of popularity and perfection, likely due to her privileged upbringing but also by the pressure to be liked and to please. While she may have a temperament more sensitive to approval, her behavior ultimately reflects the external pressure from her parents and peers. These examples show how John and Claire’s personalities were influenced by their traits and environments, conveying how nature and nurture work together (Psychology Today, n.d.). The complexity of nature vs. nurture in the movie conveys that identity is not only determined by genetics or upbringing but experiences people have with one another. Ultimately, understanding the complex and intersecting roles of nature and nurture can help to emphasize that while genetics may set the foundation for development, the experiences and relationships people have also helped shape we people become.

Parenting Style

Parenting styles refer to the patterns of behavior that parents use to raise their children, which can have an effect on a child’s development. According to Diana Baumrind (1967), and later expanded by Maccoby and Martin (1983), there are four primary parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved. Authoritarian parents are strict and demand obedience, often without considering their child’s opinions. Authoritative parents, on the other hand, are supportive and nurturing but still maintain firm rules. Permissive parents tend to be lenient and indulgent, offering little discipline. Finally, uninvolved parents are neglectful, showing little interest in their child's needs or emotions (Weiten, 2018).

In The Breakfast Club, we see the impacts of several of the parenting styles, shown through the teens’ characteristics and behaviors. Brian, “the smart one,” and Andrew, “the athlete,” are both pressured by their parents, with Andrew being in sports and Brian in academics. As with many children of authoritarian parenting style, Andrew and Brian show signs of anxiety and preoccupation with meeting their parents' rigorous demands (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). The authoritarian style is characterized by high expectations, strict rules, and a lack of emotional comfort, which often leads to feelings of helplessness and stress in children (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). These pressures are evident in both characters, as they struggle with the fear of disappointing their parents and not meeting the high standards set for them.

Allison, “the outcast,” comes from an uninvolved family where her parents neglect her emotional needs. As a result, many children raised by uninvolved parents, like Allison, often act out in order to gain attention (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). The uninvolved parenting style, which is marked by low responsiveness and little emotional support, has been linked to increased externalizing behaviors, such as aggression and defiance, as children seek validation and connection (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). This behavior is seen in Allison, who, without the emotional guidance of her parents, engages in disruptive behaviors to fill the void created by their neglect. Claire, “the popular one,” has permissive parents who allow her to do whatever she wants, leading her to feel emotionally isolated and alone. John, who is labeled as “the delinquent,” comes from an abusive and neglectful household, which contributes to his rebellious behavior. Research shows that children of uninvolved or neglectful parents are more likely to develop externalizing behavior problems such as aggression and acting out (Akhter et al., 2011).

These contrasting parenting styles offer valuable insight into the characters’ internal struggles and emotional development throughout the film, highlighting the powerful role that parenting plays in adolescent growth. As the movie progresses, it becomes clear that each character’s behavior, decision making, and relationships are deeply influenced by the ways they were raised. These differing parental approaches not only shape the characters’ identities at the start of the film, but also affect how they connect with others and navigate challenges in their adolescent journeys.

Identity Development

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages that individuals pass through across the lifespan, each defined by a specific conflict that must be resolved to foster healthy psychological growth. Successful resolution of each stage’s conflict builds a strong foundation for facing future challenges, while failure can lead to difficulties in later stages (Erikson, 1950). During adolescence, teenagers work through the 5th stage of identity versus role confusion, where they must define who they are and explore various roles. This stage is crucial for self-discovery and making sense of one’s identity. Identity can be influenced by both personal experiences and social interactions, shaping self-concept and future behavior (Branje et al., 2021).

In the beginning of the movie, the characters strongly identify with their stereotype: Brian as the "brain" because he is the smart one, Claire as the "princess" for being privileged, Andrew as the "athlete" because of his dad living vicariously through him to succeed in sports, Allison as the "basket case" for being the odd one out, and John as the "delinquent" because he rebels due to his father’s abuse and troubled environment. However, spending time together helps the characters understand and explore their identities beyond what others have labeled them. Later in the movie, as they open up and admit to their feelings to one another, Brian admits that he feels intense academic pressure from his parents and even considered suicide after receiving a failing grade in shop class. Claire reveals that although she seems privileged, her parents emotionally neglect her and use her as a pawn in their fights. Andrew confesses that he bullied another student by taping his buttocks together to impress his demanding father and feels deep guilt and shame about it.

Social influences play such an important part in people's identity exploration by allowing adolescents to find themselves beyond expectations (Branje et al., 2021). At the end of the movie, each one of the characters realized and understood that their identities are something they are to understand and choose for themselves. Now knowing the social roles being imposed on them, they should begin to embrace a more authentic version of themselves. This highlights the challenges of identity development during adolescence and the importance of social interactions in shaping one's sense of self. The characters embrace a more authentic version of themselves, ultimately signaling their growth through the process of self-discovery.

Friendships

The friendships in The Breakfast Club are perhaps what makes the whole movie so powerful and such an enduring classic. During adolescence, friendships are crucial for emotional support, self-discovery, and personal growth (Branje et al., 2021). Although the characters are divided at first by social cliques, they eventually begin to share and bond over their personal struggles. Friendships during adolescence contribute to identity, emotional well-being, and social development (Branje et al., 2021). Throughout the movie, the growing connection helps them to challenge the stereotypes imposed on them. Brian, who feels isolated, finds a sense of belonging among the group. John, who acts tough and independent, allows himself to be vulnerable in the presence of his new friends. The characters acknowledge that their friendships may not survive outside detention due to social pressures, but the experience has changed them. This shows the importance of adolescent friendships, where the relationships with other peers can hold significant meaning and impact (Branje et al., 2021). Ultimately, the movie highlights how friendships can be a foundation for self-acceptance and personal growth.

Conclusion

Overall, The Breakfast Club is an effective movie to help to explore human development in adolescents, illustrating how nature and nurture, parenting styles, attachment styles, identity, and friendship are a big influence on adolescent growth. The movie goes to show how each character enters detention defined by social labels (e.g., jock, rebel, popular and “geeky”), but throughout the movie as they share their experiences, they begin to understand themselves, and each other, on a deeper level. The movie highlights the struggles of social expectations, personal environments, parental pressure, and the search for adolescent identity, emphasizing the importance of personal connections during growth. Additionally, The Breakfast Club highlights just how important the role of adolescence plays in shaping future behavior, mental health, and social interactions. While the characters' development is rooted in the struggles they share during detention, their shared experiences also point to the lasting impact of these formative years on adulthood. The film suggests that the process of confronting and understanding one's identity, overcoming societal pressures, and forming meaningful connections with others can set you up for healthier relationships and emotional resilience for later in life. At the end of the movie, the characters were able to recognize that this experience has changed them, even if there is uncertainty about how it will affect their lives moving forward. Ultimately, The Breakfast Club is a great example of the complexities of teenage development and how human connection is something that can change a person's life.

References

Akhter, N., Hanif, R., Tariq, N., & Atta, M. (2011). Parenting styles as predictors of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems among children. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 26(1), 23–41. https://pjpr.scione.com/newfiles/pjpr.scione.com/323/323-PJPR.pdf

Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43–88.

Branje, S., De Moor, E. L., Spitzer, J., & Becht, A. I. (2021). Dynamics of identity development in adolescence: A decade in review. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(4), 908-927. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12678

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Company.

Kuppens, S., & Ceulemans, E. (2018). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(5), 1472–1483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1091-4

Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–101). Wiley.

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Nature vs. nurture. Psychology Today. Retrieved May 8, 2025, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/nature-vs-nurture

Weiten, W. (2018). Psychology themes and variations. Cengage.

Lacey Yeager is a sophomore, in the nursing major at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After graduation, she plans to begin her career in nursing. In her free time, Lacey enjoys spending time with her friends and family, as well as doing crafts and creative projects. Follow her on Instagram at @lacey20_73

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The secret to creating the perfect marketing material is understanding that there is actually no such thing as the perfect marketing material! Everyone is in a different place in life and has different perspectives, needs, and preferred ways of consuming information. When framed in that light, it becomes obvious that any single marketing strategy is less likely to succeed than a multipronged approach.

In this article, let’s dive into what we do know about various popular methods for marketing your events. Not all methods are created equal—but when creatively implemented together, each method can enhance the others in important ways.

☐ Word of Mouth

Genuine in-person excitement from fellow students can go a long way! Encourage members to talk up your event in class, invite friends directly, and share personal reasons they’re excited to attend. That energy is contagious. To get the best effect, ask everyone to keep a couple brief talking points or a printed handout or flyer handy so that they’ll have all essential details (e.g., dates and speakers’ names) at their fingertips.

☐ Flyers

To boost the effectiveness of your word-of-mouth promotions, consider printing flyers. Hand these out so that interested attendees can have something to take with them as a reminder to attend your event. One weakness of in-person word of mouth is that it can be time-consuming to reach a large number of people, and it’s always possible that students weren’t in class during your announcement—or maybe there are even some students who attend different classes than you and your fellow event promoters. A great way to overcome these challenges is to also hang up flyers in public places so that people you missed still have an opportunity to learn about and attend your event. Your flyers can be elaborate or simple. Just make sure that your main points (e.g., purpose of event, time, date, and location) are clear and large enough to be easily read by someone passing by in a hallway!

☐ Emails

You may not have easy access to an email list of members. But if you do (or if your advisor does!), then definitely take advantage of this opportunity to inform members about your event. Write your emails with short paragraphs, bolded dates/times, and a clear call-to-action (e.g., “RSVP now” or “Save the date”). Include an image or flyer attachment, and avoid sending the email too far in advance, unless you intend to send follow-ups. A well-timed email can bring your event to people’s attention at just the right moment—such as the second that midterms are officially over or during a holiday break while students aren’t physically present on campus. Emails also serve as a useful anchor—people can search their inboxes later if they need to double-check details, or they can sometimes click the dates and times in your email to automatically add your event to their digital calendars.

☐ Social Media

Many active chapters have accounts on social media. Choose your platforms based on where your audience already spends time. Instagram Stories, Reels, and TikTok videos are great for short, engaging promos. Facebook Events or Instagram countdown stickers can also help build anticipation. To make your posts more relatable and shareable, consider posting behind-the-scenes planning details, sneak peeks, and polls. Depending on the size of your event, you may wish to create a designated hashtag too, especially if it will be an ongoing or recurring event.

☐ Other Creative Ideas

The sky’s the limit when it comes to creative marketing! Check out these other example ideas that you could try:

• Table Tents: Place folded mini-flyers on tables in your student center, dining hall, or psychology department lounge.
• Chalk Art or Sidewalk Paint: With permission, use walkways near dorms or classrooms to draw attention to your event.
• QR Code Scavenger Hunt: Post clues or psychology-themed facts around campus that lead to the event info page.
• Wow Factor: Have you read about adding wow factor to your chapter event? If not, go check that out now to make your event irresistible and further increase participation!

☐ Time It Just Right

When it comes to promotion, timing matters more than you think. Advertise too late, and everyone might already have plans that overlap with your event. But advertise too soon, and everyone might forget all about your event by the time it finally takes place.

Like with choosing your marketing materials, the key to timing is to spread things out. Start sharing materials two to three weeks in advance to plant the seed early. Then follow up weekly with fresh reminders and engaging visuals. Final nudges the day before the event—or even mere minutes before the event—can seal the deal for potential attendees who’ve been on the fence.

☐ Strive for Quality

Your announcements are your event’s first impression for potential attendees. Create flyers and digital assets that communicate clearly and look polished. Psi Chi branding on your marketing materials will lend professionalism and help psychology students immediately identify the opportunity. Details for using official Psi Chi Logos and guidelines for following Psi Chi’s Brand are available on your Advisor or Officer Dashboard webpages. It never hurts to ask a friend or fellow chapter leader to review your materials before you put them out there for the world to see. If you aren’t confident in your own design skills, ask design-savvy chapter members and other friends to help you make your marketing materials—if you think about it, you probably know many people with incredible skills!

☐ Collaborate With Others

If it isn’t already clear, your marketing efforts needn’t be a solo endeavor. Tap into your chapter’s network. Ask fellow officers to promote it during meetings and classes, and encourage faculty to share the announcement with students. If applicable, get a shoutout from your department’s social media or newsletter. These channels make your reach more effective—and more personal.

A great Psi Chi event deserves to be seen—and shared. Whether you're expecting ten people or a hundred, strategic promotion ensures your hard work gets the attention it deserves. Now that you’ve got a firm handle on how to market your chapter event, let’s move on to the final step in this series: building a legacy.

Resources

• Checklist to Create a Memorable Chapter Event
• Start Smart, Add Wow Factor, Market Like a Pro, and Build a Legacy
• Chapter Activity Ideas
• Member Engagement Ideas From 2025 Advisor Meetups

The best Psi Chi events don’t just live in the moment—they echo through your chapter’s culture for months or years to come. After the chairs are stacked and the lights go out, your journey as an event leader enters its final phase: preserving priceless moments and paving the way for what comes next.

☐ Celebrate (and Extend) Your Impact

To celebrate your completed activity and increase its influence beyond the people who attended, be sure to document the event. You could do this by recording key parts for release on YouTube or other platforms. Alternatively, could you transcribe and publish valuable moments or lessons learned in written format.

Psi Chi HQ is always delighted to receive short chapter activity summaries and photos for publication in Psi Chi’s quarterly digital magazine. Short video submissions about your chapter’s event are also welcome so that HQ can share those to Psi Chi’s official social media channels.

In addition, consider posting event recaps and photos to your own or your chapter’s social media pages. You might even write a brief article for your school’s newsletter, psychology department updates, or local news channels. In addition to extending your impact, sharing about completed activities honors your team’s work and helps raise awareness about Psi Chi’s presence on campus.

☐ Reflect and Refine

Once your event comes to an end, take a moment to gather feedback for future improvements from attendees and fellow organizers. A “How’d We Do?” survey is a great place to start. Ask open-ended questions like:

• How did you hear about the event?
• What did you enjoy most?
• What could we do better next time?

Before everyone moves on to other endeavors, hold a short debrief meeting with your chapter officers and advisor. What worked? What didn’t? Whether your event was wildly successful or had a few bumps along the way, reflecting as a team creates a learning moment—and a legacy.

Take notes during your debrief and create (or update) a planning document. Include your timeline, vendors, materials used, and key contacts. Then, upload it to a shared chapter folder or cloud drive where future chapter leaders can build on your progress instead of starting from scratch if they decide to host a similar event. Speaking of which…

☐ Foster a Tradition

Strong events deserve a repeat performance. Did you know that many chapters host annual research conferences, psychology career panels, or lab meet-and-greets? If your program resonated with students and faculty, turn it into a yearly tradition!

Start by talking with your advisor about locking in the event for next year’s calendar—or even adding it to your chapter’s formal annual goals. If a younger officer or member played a key role in this year’s event, encourage them to lead the next round. Or if you wanted, you could even identify a junior leader from the beginning of the process so that they can shadow you to get ready to lead next year. With continuity, events gain stronger followings and bigger impacts, year after year.

This brings us to the end of our four-part event planning series about how to (a) Start Smart, (b) Add Wow Factor, (c) Market Like a Pro, and (d) Build a Legacy. By following these steps, you’re not just organizing a gathering—you’re shaping your chapter’s culture, creating professional development opportunities, and leaving a meaningful mark that will ripple long after your leadership term ends. Thank you for your service to Psi Chi, your chapter, and your community!

P.S. A Final Note From the Author

I’d like to say that writing this series was an absolute joy. I had the chance to dive into past chapter surveys, chapter activity submissions, feedback from advisors who attended 2025 meetings, and personal conversations with Psi Chi staff and chapter leaders—and I came away deeply inspired by the creativity, dedication, and leadership shown by Psi Chi chapter leaders everywhere.

If this guide sparked even one fresh idea to elevate your next event, then it’s done its job. If you have your own brilliant event planning approaches to share, I’d love to hear them. Email me anytime at bradley.cannon@psichi.org.

Resources

• Checklist to Create a Memorable Chapter Event
• Start Smart, Add Wow Factor, Market Like a Pro, and Build a Legacy
• Chapter Activity Ideas
• Member Engagement Ideas From 2025 Advisor Meetups

As you probably know all too well, people on your campus are highly busy. They have strict deadlines, daunting final exams, and plenty of other unexpected additions to their workloads. As a result, sometimes even a perfectly planned chapter event can result in low attendance or other unexpected hurdles that decrease the event’s overall impact.

Has your chapter ever experienced this in the past? If so, it may be time to add some “wow factor” to make sure your event is too irresistible to miss. Fortunately, elevating your event beyond the ordinary isn’t as difficult as you might think. Try one or two of these simple strategies to transform a good event into a great one.

☐ Offer Incentives

Free Food. Attendance often hinges on the promise of something special. Consider offering free food, a classic crowd-pleaser. You might be surprised by just how many hungry psych students come crawling out of the woodwork—even for an affordable treat like free donuts, pizza, coffee, or cookies.

Door Prizes or Giveaways. These can attract a larger crowd too. If you’re on a budget, simply replace costs with creativity, such as handmade bookmarks. You might also be able to convince local businesses to offer prizes for attending your event, such as coupons for free appetizers or desserts. The next time you eat out, simply request a manager and see what they say. It never hurts to ask!

Extra Credit. Another incentive that is often overlooked by planners—but is sure to get students’ attention—is extra credit. Ask your professors if they could offer a few bonus points to their students who attend your event. Remember: The creative touches described above don’t just attract more attendees—they create energy and anticipation.

☐ Involve Noteworthy Guests

Namedropping a person of influence or recognition who plans to attend your event could instantly up your event’s perceived value. As an example, you could personally invite a department chair, dean, faculty member, alumni member, distinguished researcher, neighboring club or organization, or an esteemed member of your community. If they show interest, gently see if it would be okay for you to tell others that they plan to attend. To add further weight and credibility to your event, you could also ask the person of influence to speak briefly about a relevant topic.

☐ Highlight Inclusivity

Sometimes psychology students or others in your community who aren’t Psi Chi members may not realize that they too can attend your event. Be as clear as possible about who all is welcome. Opening the doors to psychology majors, faculty, anyone at your school, or even neighboring chapters or other organizations creates a more dynamic atmosphere and can grow interest in Psi Chi. Visit here to identify other Psi Chi chapters in your region or state. You could also identify and invite any nearby chapters of Psi Beta, Psi Chi’s sister honor society for two-year colleges. Also keep in mind that nontraditional students or those from diverse backgrounds may need an extra nudge or special consideration to feel comfortable participating—whether that’s through personal invitations, flexible event times, or highlighting your chapter’s commitment to inclusion. Everyone should always feel welcome at Psi Chi events.

☐ Invite Early Participation

Would you like to build engagement before your event even begins? One way is to ask people to submit questions in advance if the event includes a speaker or panel. This helps tailor the content to audience interests—and creates a sense of ownership among potential attendees so they are more likely to show up for your event.

The suggestions above are intended to help you add wow factor to your upcoming event—but this is by no means an extensive list of ideas. Over the years, chapters have taken many creative actions to “spice up” their primary events, such as integrating an event theme, hosting a trivia competition at the end of their event, or even featuring mini art shows of psych-inspired student work during their activity. Be creative and you will go far! Once you’ve found your wow factor, it is time to market like a pro.

Resources

• Checklist to Create a Memorable Chapter Event
• Start Smart, Add Wow Factor, Market Like a Pro, and Build a Legacy
• Chapter Activity Ideas
• Member Engagement Ideas From 2025 Advisor Meetups

Choosing to open this article is your first bold step toward creating truly meaningful chapter event! Each year, Psi Chi chapter leaders around the globe spark lasting change—both on their campuses and beyond. Whether you’re seeking to build a stronger community, educate others, or add a standout leadership experience to your resumé, Psi Chi is the perfect channel to accomplish your goals. This four-part series will walk you through the process of hosting an event and give you the confidence needed to surpass every expectation you thought you had.

As you may already realize, a memorable Psi Chi chapter event begins with purposeful planning. Thoughtful decisions made early on shape every detail that follows—from turnout to impact. So let’s get started! Here’s how to lay the groundwork for an unforgettable event.

Download an event planning checklist to print and use for your next chapter event.

☐ Identify a Strong Concept

You might already have a cool idea for an activity, such as a Psychology MythBusters Game Night, a chapter research conference, or an Empathy Exchange to assemble mental health care packages? But if not, then that’s Ok too, because having an open mind and a keen eye for finding ways to support your members’ needs can be equally important. What do your members or others in your community need help with? What are they interested in? Give them activities related to these things!

In any case, before you start inviting speakers or booking rooms, take a moment to ensure that you have identified the best possible activity. Excellent projects are (a) within your bandwidth to complete, (b) approved of by your chapter leaders, and (c) resonate with your chapter members and/or community!

To identify a project, Psi Chi’s Chapter Activity Ideas Online Resource is a helpful starting place. In this resource, you’ll find a curated list of ideas—both big and small—all of which align with the Society’s core goals to encourage Scholarly Pursuits, Member Development and Engagement, and Chapter Experiences. To find out what other chapters have been up to recently, you can also review countless Chapter Activities published quarterly at the end of each issue of Eye on Psi Chi magazine.

Another way to identify an activity that will be a big success is to tap into the knowledge of your advisors and officers by asking what’s worked well in the past at your local school. Advisors are often able to share which past events had high attendance or warn you of any obstacles that might have occurred in the past.

On the other hand, if you do decide to try out a new idea, that doesn’t mean you have to work in the dark. Get a feel for interest in your event by checking in with peers at a chapter meeting, on campus, or by casually asking students in your classes if they would like to attend. Beyond informal conversations, a quick poll can go a long way!

☐ Set an Appealing Date and Time

As you ask around about interest in your event, it never hurts to also find out which dates and time slots people would be most likely to commit to. You may quickly discover, for example, that a lot of Psi Chi members have to work on Friday nights or have night classes on Wednesdays. Equally important, many students may be out of town around holidays or express doubts about whether they can attend your event close to midterms or final exams. If your chapter already has strong attendance during regular meetings, then that might be the perfect time to conduct your activity with less need for marketing efforts! Try to do whatever works best for your potential attendees.

☐ Consider Any Funding Needs and Options

Some events come with costs—decorations, refreshments, supplies, hotel meeting rooms, or guest speaker fees. Discuss your chapter’s budget with your advisor or officer team, and if needed, consider creative funding options like requesting donations in advance, finding a local sponsor, hosting a small fundraiser, or charging a low attendance fee. Each fall, Psi Chi does offer Chapter Activity Grants of up to $750; consider applying! Additional chapter awards to support your advisor and officer team are also available. Being transparent and proactive here is key.

☐ Figure Out (and Follow) Any Institutional Policies

You probably won’t have to worry about this step if your event is small, informal, and/or takes place during a pre-established chapter meeting. However, if you’re planning something different or large-scale, you may need institutional approval to book a meeting room, table in public areas, or bring nonuniversity people (or animals) onto campus. Every campus has its own procedures for hosting events, so navigate those early to prevent complications later. A perfect place to start is to ask your advisor for guidance, and if approval is necessary, they should be able to help you locate your school’s event guidelines, booking procedures, and approval forms.

☐ Invite Support From Others

Are all signals green so far to conduct your event? Excellent! Now that your plan is really starting to take shape, it’s time to rally chapter officers or volunteers to help with ideas, logistics, promotions, and/or day-of coordination. Even if others can only offer a small amount of their time to support your cause, their thoughts and support can stack up quickly! One way to make students more likely to get involved is if you come to chapter meetings prepared with specific, simple actions that they can volunteer for to help you out. Shared leadership makes events stronger and boosts engagement from the start. Give everyone who is interested in your event something to do, even if it is simply to spread the word in their classes or make fresh lemonade for the event.

☐ Establish a Roadmap

Once your idea, logistics, and supporters are in place, take a moment to map out a quick timeline, roadmap, or checklist leading up to launch day. Divide tasks into manageable steps that each indicate due dates and everyone’s roles clearly assigned. Items on your roadmap might include: book your venue, design flyers, start promotion, and confirm your helpers. It is also smart to include contingency plans for common curveballs—like tech issues, scheduling hiccups, or bad weather if your event will be outdoors. A solid checklist is one of the best tools you can have.

When you’ve considered these basic planning elements for your activity, you’re ready to take the next step toward a memorable chapter event. See you there!

Resources

• Checklist to Create a Memorable Chapter Event
• Start Smart, Add Wow Factor, Market Like a Pro, and Build a Legacy
• Chapter Activity Ideas
• Member Engagement Ideas From 2025 Advisor Meetups

We place high value on escaping the routine of school, work, and everyday life for a vacation. For some, that means adventure—rock climbing, kayaking, or hiking. For others, it’s exploring new cultures. And for many, it’s all about rest and relaxation. But does vacation actually boost psychological health?

Fortunately, research says yes—if we are intentional about how we take time off. Scientific studies have shown that vacations produce measurable physical and psychological gains (Grun von Julk, 2025). A recent meta-analysis by Grant and colleagues (2025) found that vacations improve employee well-being in ways that can last far beyond the trip itself. However, these benefits are shaped by key factors, such as how fully we disconnect from work and the types of activities we choose to fill our days.

One major psychological challenge for vacations is keeping our expectations realistic. Paris Syndrome (McClatchie, 2025) describes severe distress experienced by a small percentage of Japanese tourists when the reality of Paris doesn’t match their idealized image. This disconnect between expectation and reality is common for people vacationing to exotic or idealized locations—and is an idea humorously skewered in Adam Sandler’s 2019 Romano Tours Saturday Night Live sketch. Other destinations have their own unique psychological impacts. Jerusalem Syndrome (Ledsom, 2024) involves hallucinations, delusions, and other disruptions in some visitors to holy sites. Stendhal Syndrome strikes certain travelers overwhelmed by the beauty of Florence, causing heart palpitations, anxiety, and dizziness (Ledsom, 2024). While linked to specific locations, these syndromes can occur anywhere with similar conditions—whether a clash between expectations and reality, intense religious engagement, or overwhelming artistic beauty.

So how can we maximize vacation’s value? According to Tropiano (2025), one of the simplest—yet psychologically hardest—steps is disconnecting from our digital world. Michelle Shiota and Tamera Schneider of Arizona State University recommend five strategies for a mentally healthy getaway:

1. Limit internet use
2. Set an away message that creates psychological distance from daily responsibilities
3. Establish personal tech boundaries while traveling
4. Reduce constant photo-taking to stay present in the moment
5. Whenever possible, leave devices behind entirely

Ultimately, a key predictor of vacation benefits is how completely we disengage from daily routines. Those who step away from work—avoiding not just emails but also negative work-related rumination—show the greatest gains (Grun von Julk, 2025). And ironically, given the proven value of detachment, we mention that both authors of this piece drafted the headline while on their own summer vacations.

References

Grant, R. S., Buchanan, B. E., & Shockley, K. M. (2025). I need a vacation: A meta-analysis of vacation and employee well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 110(7), 887–905. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001262

Grun von Julk, R. (2025, July 9). You’re taking vacations wrong. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/maximizing-relationships-and-happiness-in-life/202507/youre-taking-vacations-wrong

Ledsom, A. (2024, July 10). Paris syndrome: When shock and disappointment take over. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexledsom/2024/07/08/what-is-the-paris-syndrome/

McClatchie, C. (2025, July 6). There’s a psychological term for feeling disappointed by traveling to Paris—and it can have intense symptoms. Travel + Leisure. https://www.travelandleisure.com/what-is-paris-syndrome-psychology-11741783

Tropiano, D. (2025, July 17). The benefits of a tech-free vacation. ASU News. https://news.asu.edu/20250717-health-and-medicine-benefits-techfree-vacation

For as long as I can remember, I’ve connected deeply with Whitesnake’s 1982 rock ballad “Here I Go Again.” There is something powerful in its balance between loneliness and strength, captured in the lines:

And here I go again on my own,
Going down the only road I've ever known.
Like a drifter I was born to walk alone.
(1987 rerelease lyrics)

David Coverdale’s heartache over the dissolution of his marriage—and his determination to move forward—are woven into the song’s lyrics and driving melody (Hutchinson, 2021).

In discussing time by ourselves, it’s essential to distinguish negative loneliness—externally imposed and perceived as unwanted—from positive solitude—internally driven and intentionally chosen. The former breeds distress; the latter offers renewal, perspective, and space to breathe. Research grounded in self-determination theory shows that intentionally seeking time alone helps down-regulate high arousal, increasing calm and reducing stress (Nguyen et al., 2018). Positive solitude is also defined by autonomy, reflection, and freedom from external demands (Coplan & Bowker, 2021).

Thomas (2025) identifies several benefits of intentionally choosing time alone: opportunities to recharge, relax, reconnect, and recenter. Solitude can also spark creativity, encourage personal exploration, and foster emotional growth. Just 15 minutes of solitude, Thomas notes, can significantly reduce high-arousal emotions such as anxiety, offering a mental reset and greater clarity. It also provides space for emotional processing and innovation—benefits that often go untapped in our hyper-connected lives.

How we view time by ourselves shapes whether solitude feels nourishing or depleting. Rodriguez and colleagues (2025) found that media portrayals of being alone are overwhelmingly negative—framing it as harmful 10 times more often than beneficial—which influences personal experience. People who hold negative beliefs tend to feel lonelier in solitude, while those with positive beliefs often feel more content and restored.

Longitudinal research reinforces this point. In a registered-report diary study, adults who spent more time alone reported lower stress and greater autonomy satisfaction on those days, with benefits building over time. Downsides such as same-day loneliness or reduced satisfaction appeared when solitude increased, but these were minimized when it was choiceful. Notably, there was no universal “optimal” ratio of solitude to socializing—motivation mattered more than time (Weinstein et al., 2023).

Author James Clear (2025) distills healthy solitude into a simple truth:

Go do things on your own so you learn to trust your mind ...
The person who is at ease within finds every other space larger and more enjoyable.

Voluntary solitude—anchored in positive beliefs and intrinsic motivation—is not withdrawal from life. It is a deliberate act of self-care, a renewable source of creativity and calm, and a foundation for engaging more fully with the world when we return to it.

References

Clear, J. (2025, July 24). 3-2-1: On enjoying your own company, what drives change, and editing your habits. James Clear. https://jamesclear.com/3-2-1/july-24-2025

Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, J. C. (Eds.). (2021). The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone. John Wiley & Sons.

Hutchinson, K. (2021, November 6). Whitesnake’s David Coverdale: ‘I wrote ‘Here I Go Again’ rat-arsed on white port and 7 Up.’ The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/whitesnake-david-coverdale-interview-here-i-go-again-b1952509.html

Nguyen, T.-V. T., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(1), 92–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217733073

Rodriguez, M., Schertz, K. E., & Kross, E. (2025). How people think about being alone shapes their experience of loneliness. Nature Communications, 16, 1594. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56764-3

Thomas, V. (2025, April 4). Being alone has its benefits—a psychologist flips the script on the “loneliness epidemic.” The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/being-alone-has-its-benefits-a-psychologist-flips-the-script-on-the-loneliness-epidemic-250742

Weinstein, N., Vuorre, M., Adams, M., & Nguyen, T.-V. (2023). Balance between solitude and socializing: Everyday solitude time both benefits and harms well-being. Scientific Reports, 13, 21160. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44507-7

In an era when mental health awareness is trending—and hashtags reach millions in seconds—our access to information has never been greater, or more treacherous. The same platforms that spark openness and connection can also spread myths, distortions, and outright falsehoods. Navigating this digital landscape requires more than curiosity; it demands critical thinking, scientific literacy, and an intentional approach to what we consume and share.

Social media is a prime example of this double-edged reality. Sy et al. (2025) report that, while nearly 90 million posts carry the #mentalhealth tag, much of the content is misleading or inaccurate. Licensed psychologist Taisha Caldwell-Harvey warns that oversimplifying complex mental health issues or treating ordinary emotions as clinical disorders can lead to self-misdiagnosis or delay in seeking professional help (Sy et al., 2025). Armstrong and their research team (2025) found that young people entering treatment for mood or anxiety disorders frequently arrived with pre-formed self-diagnoses shaped by online content—diagnoses that often did not align with clinical assessments. While some felt empowered by this knowledge-seeking, others experienced heightened anxiety and confusion when their self-labels were challenged. Soroya and colleagues (2025) echo these concerns, showing that repeated exposure to unverified content can fuel “cyberchondria,” intensifying distress, especially among vulnerable individuals.

The risks are not limited to misinformation. Al Musawi and colleagues (2025) describe social media’s dual nature: While it can connect people with supportive communities, it also promotes cyberbullying, distorted realities, and upward social comparisons that erode self-esteem. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable, as their sense of worth is often tied to online validation. Passive use, like endless scrolling, is more harmful than active engagement and can contribute to compulsive use, anxiety, depression, and FOMO.

Beyond individual posts, the sheer volume and diversity of online information can overwhelm our ability to think clearly. Vaccaro-Witt and colleagues (2025) found that, during the COVID-19 crisis, conflicting messages from different sources amplified public confusion and stress. Posts expressing sadness, fear, or anger were linked to spikes in suicidal ideation, whereas those framed around solidarity and shared purpose promoted calm and resilience.

Peer support groups illustrate this help–harm balance. Treadgold and colleagues (2025) found that, while these spaces can empower and connect, they also circulate misleading advice—especially on chronic or life-threatening conditions. Although members sometimes correct falsehoods, such interventions are inconsistent. Platforms themselves can worsen matters: Jain and colleagues (2025) show that TikTok’s algorithmic feeds and infinite scrolling encourage problematic use, linking it to anxiety, depression, and sleep disruption. TikTok and other social media platforms are beginning to create crowdsourced tools to help identify and address misinformation, but it is too early to tell the full impact and utility of these tools (TikTok, 2025).

The takeaway is clear: information literacy in the digital age is not optional. Every scroll, click, and share shapes how we—and our communities—understand mental health. By questioning credentials, verifying sources, and prioritizing evidence-based information, we can protect our well-being and foster healthier, more truthful conversations.

References

Al Musawi, H. K. (2025). The impact of social media on mental health: A comprehensive academic analysis. The Family Journal. Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/10664807251346978

Armstrong, S., Osuch, E., Wammes, M., Chevalier, O., Kieffer, S., Meddaoui, M., & Rice, L. (2025). Self-diagnosis in the age of social media: A pilot study of youth entering mental health treatment for mood and anxiety disorders. Acta Psychologica, 256, 105015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105015

Jain, L., Velez, L., Karlapati, S., Forand, M., Kannali, R., Yousaf, R. A., Ahmed, R., Sarfraz, Z., Sutter, P. A., Anthony Tallo, C., & Ahmed, S. (2025). Exploring problematic TikTok use and mental health issues: A systematic review of empirical studies. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 16. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319251327303

Sy, S., Mufson, C., & Corkery, A. (2025, July 20). What to know about the rise of mental health misinformation on social media. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/what-to-know-about-the-rise-of-mental-health-misinformation-on-social-media

TikTok. (n.d.). Harmful misinformation guide. TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/safety/en/harmful-misinformation-guide

Treadgold, B. M., Coulson, N. S., Campbell, J. L., Lambert, J., & Pitchforth, E. (2025). Quality and misinformation about health conditions in online peer support groups: scoping review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 27, e71140. https://doi.org/10.2196/71140

Vaccaro-Witt, G. F., Bernal, H., Guerra Heredia, S., Cabrera, F. E., & Peláez, J. I. (2025). Effect of informational divergence on the mental health of the population in crisis situations: A study in COVID-19. Societies, 15(5), 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050118

We are starting to recognize that community is not just nice to have—it is essential to psychological health and can function as a form of psychological medicine. As Kaplan (2025) explains, meaningful connection with others has measurable effects on mental and physical well-being, from reducing stress to accelerating recovery from illness. At a time when the “loneliness epidemic” is widely discussed, we must recognize that authentic relationships and shared experiences can counterbalance the anxiety, isolation, and other strains of modern life, fostering resilience and a genuine sense of belonging.

The benefits of community extend beyond casual interactions. Intentional, supportive networks can shape identity, offer emotional safety, and provide practical resources during life’s inevitable challenges. Kaplan (2025) suggests three ways to strengthen this “medicine”: (a) participate in groups or activities aligned with your passions or values to boost both connection and personal fulfillment; (b) create regular rituals—such as shared meals, book clubs, or walking groups—that maintain strong bonds; and (c) practice mutual support by both giving and receiving help, reinforcing trust and reciprocity.

Research reinforces this healing potential. Duplantier and colleagues (2025) describe their “Community as Medicine” program—a trauma-informed, group-based health coaching model rooted in lifestyle medicine. Over three months, low-income adults met weekly for sessions centered on four pillars: physical activity, healthy meals, social support, and stress reduction. Participants reported significant reductions in depression, anxiety, and isolation, along with improved diet and increased physical activity. Qualitative feedback pointed to belonging, mutual support, empowerment, and shared progress as central to these gains, demonstrating that community-based interventions strengthen both mental and physical health.

Bhutan offers a striking national-scale example of prioritizing community for public health. Thorpe (2025) notes that by 2047, one in five Bhutanese will be over 60, making the prevention of social isolation as important as managing chronic illness. Guided by its Gross National Happiness philosophy, Bhutan emphasizes “mattering”—the sense of being valued by others—as a protective factor against loneliness, depression, and cognitive decline. Intergenerational initiatives, such as pairing adolescents with elders to build digital skills, strengthen mutual respect while expanding social networks and community-driven models like “Community as Medicine” are viewed as pathways for older adults to age with dignity, purpose, and connection while building strong, sustainable communities.

Ultimately, community is not an optional extra. It is a cornerstone of psychological health, a catalyst for physical well-being, and a resource we can—and should—cultivate with intention.

References

Duplantier, S. C., Lee, J., Markle, E. A., & Emmert-Aronson, B. (2025). Community as Medicine: A novel approach to improve health behaviors and mental well-being for vulnerable populations. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15598276251321453

Kaplan, S. (2025, July 6). Community is medicine that heals. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-power-of-experience/202507/community-is-medicine-that-heals

Thorpe, R. (2025). The importance of social health for older populations. Bhutan Health Journal, 11(1), II. https://doi.org/10.47811/bhj.186

Introduction and Rationale

Newsies is a show loosely based on the true story of the New York-based newsboy strike of 1899, marking a pivotal turn for fair pay and child labor ethics (Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017). The musical follows teen protagonist Jack Kelly, a homeless newsboy and an aspiring artist who dreams of escaping the streets of Manhattan and venturing off to Santa Fe. His dreams are put on hold after New York’s leading publisher, Joseph Pullitzer, decides to drastically increase the price of the newsboys’ papers, making the boys’ lives increasingly more difficult. Alongside his friends (including the witty reporter, Katherine), Jack fights back against the city’s most powerful political and influential figures. The show features a variety of themes, such as collective action, peer relationships, and child labor. Despite being set at the turn of the 20^th century, the show’s plot still holds relevance in modern times; the class battle between the poor newsies and the wealthy industrial figures mirrors some of the contention occurring between American socioeconomic classes today. The show is a beacon of hope to individuals battling inequality, and it shows that social change is possible through hard work and steadfast dedication.

Collective Action and Group Anger

Emotions are often a driving force in motivating both individual and group participation in areas of collective action (Basabe et al., 2017; Halperin et al., 2021; Long et al., 2025). Collective action occurs when individuals band together in order to work towards some common goal of social change or to combat some particular area of social injustice (Halperin et al., 2021). One of the most influential emotions pertaining to activism and collective action is anger; unsuppressed and shared anger in the face of social injustice can facilitate the formation of a shared group identity, blur lines between oppressed groups and privileged groups, and encourage individuals to take direct action against injustice (Basabe et al., 2017; Halperin et al., 2021; Long et al., 2025). Social movements and collective action maintain relevance in modern society as different groups of individuals continuously seek equity, justice, and acceptance. Different contemporary movements such as the #BlackLivesMatter movement, the LGBTQ+ movement, and the #MeToo movement are rooted in collective group anger and shared frustration in the face of injustice. From Newsies to now, collective action has become increasingly frequent as people of different identities, cultures, and circumstances band together to advocate change.

At the core of Newsies is the battle waged by the newsboys to ascertain fair paper prices and a livable wage. The newsboys become increasingly frustrated with the spiked prices of papers and their unrealistic pay; their anger peaks in the song “The World Will Know,” where Jack and Davey rally all of the local newsboys as a union (Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017; 37:15). Group anger motivates the boys to recruit the other boroughs of New York to strike against Pulitzer, to form a large union, and to release a news article about their situation with the aid of Katherine (Jost et al., 2021). Katherine exemplifies the way in which a privileged individual or group is able to directly fight alongside the targeted and oppressed party, promoting joint collectivist action (Long et al., 2025). In addition to anger, expressions of hope also solidify and strengthen the newsies’ strike; this is depicted within Davey’s rallying speech at the beginning of “Seize the Day” (Basabe et al., 2017, Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017; 54:12). Jack encourages the boys to turn their anger into motivation while Davey instructs them to maintain hope for change, highlighting the importance of both emotions in regards to collective action.

Peer Relationships

Another theme found in Newsies is that of the relationships between the newsboys. Peer relationships and friendships are critical components of healthy development within children and adolescents (Ahmed et al., 2024; Gu et al., 2024; Güroǧlu, 2022). Peer relationships can be characterized positively or negatively by an engaging individual, and perceived peer importance may be ranked by the brain on a hierarchical and rewards-based system (Güroǧlu, 2022). Adolescent peer relationships often carry more needs and depth compared to friendships maintained strictly during childhood (Güroǧlu, 2022). Friendships evolve and change as humans progress from childhood to adolescence; the role of emotional intimacy and social support largely increase in importance as a child enters adolescence (Gu, 2024). For children and adolescents with little or no parental support, peer relationships can carry increased social benefits. Healthy and positive relationships with peers are shown to have a positive impact on adolescents’ social development, social learning skills, and empathy (Ahmed et al., 2024; Gu, 2024). Social support provided by peers also tends to be positively associated with adolescents’ feelings of hope and positive conflict resolution skills (Gu, 2024).

Many of the boys in Newsies have extremely tight-knit friendships with each other; some characters like Jack view their friends as family since they have no direct contact with biological relatives. During the strike Katherine joins forces with her newsboy friends against her father, Pulitzer; this reflects how teenagers may prioritize peer relationships over their familial relationships during adolescence (Güroǧlu, 2022). The newsboys continuously attempt to make the best of their extremely unfortunate living situations by drawing upon their friendships and shared levels of support as seen within the “King of New York” sequence (Ahmed et al., 2024; Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017; 1:11:57; Gu, 2024). Les, one of the youngest newsies at 10-years-old, has fairly surface level friendships characterized by playfulness, whereas the older adolescent newsies’ relationships are much more dependent on trust and conflict resolution skills (Güroǧlu, 2022, Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017, 15:19). As is commonly seen among teenagers, friendships are a staple for all of the newsies, which is perhaps best demonstrated when Jack abandons his Santa Fe dreams to remain with his supportive friends in Manhattan.

Child Labor and Child Begging

Newsies also hits on some darker topics, one of which being child labor and horrible working conditions for children. Child labor is a practice that is currently outlawed in several regions of the world due to the well-documented negative effects that it has on child development. For example, child labor has been associated with a number of adverse effects, including but not limited to: increased risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), illiteracy, diminished psychosocial development, malnutrition, reduced overall health, decreased self-esteem, and diminished pro-social behaviors (Asgharzadeh et al., 2018; Drydakis, 2023; Mehmood, 2023).

Children growing up in homes that are abusive or struggling financially may be forced into labor or encouraged to practice begging (Drydakis, 2023). Once rooted in agricultural labor, child labor has shifted and evolved to incorporate child workers into more urban settings (Asgharzadeh et al., 2018). Child labor and begging perpetuate a cycle of poverty and struggle; working children are often deprived of an education and proper nutrients, further restricting their abilities to socioeconomically advance in life (Asgharzadeh et al., 2018). Forced and encouraged begging behaviors within children have been likened and connected to child labor due to the common victimization of the children engaging in either or both of these practices (Drydakis, 2023).

In the musical, the majority of the newsboys, most notably Les and Davey, are forced to sell papers to contribute to their families' low incomes (Drydakis, 2023). Other newsies, like Jack and Crutchie, are forced into the business because they have no families to financially support them. Les is able to use his extremely young age as a bargaining tool to sell more papers while Crutchie is forced to capitalize on his disability. Regardless of the individual circumstances, all of the newsboys are exploited by the higher industry powers in the film, and as a result they are extremely underpaid. The lyrics of “Carrying the Banner” highlight the difficulties of child labor and the different begging tactics each of the boys must utilize in order to make a living (Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017, 6:12). The boys sing about their lack of food at home, their extreme working conditions on the streets, and the ways in which they must “sell themselves” to potential paper buyers. In the scene and song “Letter From the Refuge,” Crutchie sings about some of the adverse effects of child labor that he’s experienced during his exploitation by the Delancey brothers and throughout his life as a whole; he makes remarks about his lack of food, overcrowded sleeping quarters, maltreatment from authorities, and worsening disability (Asgharzadeh et al., 2018; Calhoun & Sullivan, 2017, 1:17:15; Drydakis, 2023; Mehmood, 2023). The bleak circumstances of the refuge signify the struggles faced by many children forced into work and lacking families to provide them aid.

Conclusion

Part of Newsies’ charm is its timeless nature, including the ability to call the audience to action against social injustice. The show brings awareness to heavy topics like exploitation and child labor, which are still ongoing problems in certain areas of the world. Memorable characters like Jack and Crutchie remind audiences of the vulnerability and grit of children and adolescents born into labor or abandoned households. The newsies’ strike models the ways in which shared feelings of anger and hope can be funneled into collective action. Movements striving for social change against injustice can bring individuals from differing groups together, as seen in the joint efforts of the disadvantaged newsies and privileged characters like Katherine. During times of hardship or severe social injustice, relationships can be solid foundations for emotional support. Newsies emphasizes the significance of peer relationships, and the ways in which positive friendships can provide some light during dark times. Jack is able to grow as a protagonist because of his powerful connections with his fellow newsies; his friends show him constant support during the period in which he must lead the strike. Ultimately, the show demonstrates the ways in which progress can be achieved through hard work and it provides hope in an era where capitalism runs rampant.

References

Ahmed, M., Rashid, S., & Shaukat, A. (2024). Moderating role of peer relations and executive functioning on the relationship between self-efficacy, empathy, & social skills. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 43, 30828–30841. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06676-0

Asgharzadeh, S. A. A., Filip, I., Quesada, F., & Radfar, A. (2018). Challenges and perspectives of child labor. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 27(1), 17–20. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_105_1

Basabe, N., Páez, D., Wlodarczyk, A., & Zumeta, L. (2017). Hope and anger as mediators between collective action frames and participation in collective mobilization: The case of 15-M. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 5(1), 200–223. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v5i1.471

Calhoun, J. & Sullivan, B. (Directors). (2017). Disney’s Newsies: The Broadway Musical [Film]. Disney Theatrical Productions; Fathom Events.

Drydakis, N. (2023). Forced labor and health-related outcomes. The case of beggar children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 146, 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106490

Güroǧlu, B. (2022). The power of friendship: The developmental significance of friendships from a neuroscience perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 16(2), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12450

Haperin, E., Jost, J. T., Solak, N., Sümer, N., & Tamir, M. (2021). Expressive Suppression as an obstacle to social change: Linking system justification, emotion regulation, and collective action. Journal of Motivation and Emotion, 45(5), 661–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-021-09883-5

Kwok, S. Y., Gu, M., & Lai, K. Y. (2024). A longitudinal study of perceived social support from friends and hope in adolescents: emotional intelligence as the mediator. Current Psychology, 43(25), 21518–21529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05875-z

Long, F., Luo, L., & Ye, Z. (2025). Joint collective action increases support for social change and mitigates intergroup polarisation: A registered report. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 118, 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104732

Mehmood, S. (2023). Psychological trauma in child labor. The Journal of Educational Paradigms, 3(2), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.47609/0302012023

Paige Veneziale is currently a third year psychology major at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She is on track to graduate a year early and hopes to attend a graduate program in counseling after her undergraduate. In her free time she enjoys reading and creating artwork

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Psi Chi’s alumni network is gaining momentum. Thanks to the dedication of three dynamic leaders of the new Psi Chi Alumni Steering Committee: Shelby Jenkins, Tiffany Shao, and Larisa Southerland. These trailblazers are channeling their Psi Chi experiences into a bold new era—one that champions lifelong connection, professional growth, and community among alumni. Get to know the faces behind this exciting movement below:

Shelby Jenkins

Pictured left above.

Shelby E. Jenkins, MA, is the director of book and journal production at the American Psychological Association. She is also an incoming board member of the Book Industry Study Group. She earned her BA from Bowie State University and her MA from Trinity Washington University.

Shelby says: “During my undergraduate degree, I was president of my Psi Chi chapter and valued what the organization represented. I hope to help provide that same feeling for alumni so that they feel like there is more to our membership outside of undergrad.”

Tiffany Shao

Pictured middle above.

Tiffany Shao is a PhD student in social psychology at Claremont Graduate University. Her research focuses on how cognitive and social processes influence decision-making in the criminal legal system. She is passionate about equity in higher education and mentors first-generation students and students of color pursuing careers in research and academia.

Tiffany says: “Being part of the Psi Chi Alumni Steering Committee allows me to give back to a community that has been foundational to my development as a scholar. As an undergraduate scholar, Psi Chi was one of the first academic spaces where I felt truly seen and supported. I stay involved because I want to help build that same sense of belonging and opportunity for others—especially for students navigating academia without inherited networks. Through mentoring, collaboration, and advocacy, I aim to uplift diverse voices and expand access to research and leadership opportunities in psychology.”

Larisa Southerland

Pictured right above.

Larisa is an associate marriage and family therapist in private practice, working with individuals struggling with OCD, anxiety, and relational issues, as well as couples. Larisa is passionate about her work in the mental health field, as well as environmental issues, animal welfare, and community well-being. In Larisa’s spare time, you can find her checking out books at the local library, volunteering at the animal shelter, or enjoying time with her friends, family, and beloved dog.

Larisa says: “I joined Psi Chi as an undergrad psychology student way back in 2017. I remain involved with Psi Chi as an alumni member because I enjoy surrounding myself with those I can learn from and network with. I have been working with the Alumni Steering Committee in the hopes of reaching other alumni and creating opportunities for in-person and virtual events. Helping to build this community means a lot to me, and I hope that, together, we can motivate other alumni to engage more with Psi Chi and make our community stronger.”

The movie Up (Docter, 2009) follows the story of 78-year-old Carl Fredricksen who, after the death of his wife, Ellie, fulfills their lifelong dream of visiting Paradise Falls. Because he does not want to leave his home—and his memories of Ellie—behind, Carl has the unconventional idea to tie thousands of balloons to his house and fly it there. To his surprise, he accidentally brings along an eager young boy scout named Russell who is trying to earn his final merit badge. During their journey, they encounter a giant bird named Kevin, a talking golden retriever named Dug, and Charles Muntz, a villainous explorer obsessed with capturing the bird. Carl is initially focused on fulfilling his late wife’s dream, but as he bonds with Russell, he learns to let go of his grief and embrace new relationships. The film explores Carl’s emotional growth as he discovers the value of companionship and adventure. In the end, Carl and Russell develop a meaningful friendship and Carl learns that life’s greatest adventures are shared with others.

Loss & Grief

Grief is the complex emotional response that follows loss. While we typically conceptualize grief around the loss of a loved one (where it can certainly be prominent!), grief can also occur in response to the loss of a job, friendship, cultural identity, and so on. Developmental psychologists often use the Kubler-Ross stages of grief to explain five common emotional responses to loss: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Tyrrell et al., 2023). These stages are not experienced in a fixed order and can vary for each individual, helping them process grief in different, often non-linear, ways.

In Up, Carl experiences the devastating loss of his beloved wife Ellie. Shown through what is arguably Disney-Pixar’s most moving 4 ½ minute montage, we watch Ellie grow ill and ultimately pass away, leaving her grieving husband behind. Like many who are faced with loss, Carl begins to move through the stages of grief. First, we see denial in the time immediately after Ellie’s death when he refuses to accept that his life has changed and that he must move on. He clings to the house they built together and continues to preserve it exactly as Ellie left it, refusing to sell it despite pressure from the construction company (00:13). His attachment to the house symbolizes his refusal to let go of his past with Ellie, as he can’t imagine living without her or fulfilling their shared dream of visiting Paradise Falls. Carl experiences anger after Ellie’s death when he confronts the construction workers who are trying to buy his house. He becomes frustrated and aggressive, shouting at them and refusing to sell, even though the house is being threatened by their development plans (00:14). This outburst reflects his anger over the loss of Ellie and the life they had planned together, as well as his feeling of being unable to control the changes happening around him.

Carl experiences bargaining when he decides to tie thousands of balloons to his house and fly it to Paradise Falls, believing that if he can just fulfill the dream he and Ellie shared, it will somehow bring her back or give his life meaning again (00:21). He even speaks to Ellie’s framed picture, as if trying to make a deal with her spirit, hoping that completing their adventure will help him find peace and a sense of closure after her death (00:23). This reflects his subconscious attempt to “bargain” with the past, trying to reverse or undo the loss by fulfilling their shared dream. Depression is shown when Carl becomes isolated and withdrawn, shutting himself off from the world. He refuses to sell his house, clinging to it as a symbol of his life with Ellie, and is emotionally distant from others, including young Russell (00:15). Carl’s sadness is evident in his interactions, as he often reflects on memories of Ellie, showing a deep sense of loss and hopelessness, unable to move forward or find joy in life without her.

Finally, at the end of the movie, we see Carl begin to accept Ellie’s loss when he chooses to let go of his attachment to the house and its memories of Ellie (01:25). After realizing the importance of his relationship with Russell and the value of new experiences, Carl decides to give Russell the merit badge he had been striving for and helps him achieve his goal (1:27). In this moment, Carl embraces the idea that life can still hold meaningful adventures, even after loss, and he finds peace in passing on Ellie’s memory while moving forward with a new purpose.

Psychosocial Development

Another theme in Up is the various stages of the human lifespan. Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development outline eight stages of human development, each marked by a central conflict that individuals must navigate. Successful resolution of each conflict contributes to a healthy personality development (Cherry, 2024a).

Carl is 78 years old, which places him in Erikson’s stage of integrity vs. despair (the final stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory). Individuals in this stage often reflect on their lives, experiencing either a sense of integrity from feeling fulfilled and at peace, or despair from regret and missed opportunities (Cherry, 2025). The challenge of this stage is to find wisdom and contentment, accepting both successes and failures (Cherry, 2025). At the start of the film, Carl is trapped in despair, dealing with the loss of his wife and the weight of their unfulfilled dreams. His inability to let go of the past and his refusal to move forward in life lead to a deep sense of dissatisfaction and loneliness. Carl’s bitterness towards others reflects his internal struggles with despair. For example, when Russell approaches Carl to help him with scouting tasks, Carl is dismissive and uninterested in the boy’s presence. This is evident when Carl insists on sending Russell away, ignoring the importance of the emotional connection that Russell seeks. His journey is tied to reconciling his past and accepting the impermanence of life. Carl’s development in the film mirrors the challenges faced in late adulthood, where individuals reflect on their life’s meaning. The turning point for Carl occurs when he embarks on his adventure to Paradise Falls. Initially, Carl’s motivation is to fulfill Ellie’s dream by reaching the falls, but as the story progresses, he begins to confront deeper, more meaningful realizations. The first major shift comes when Carl realizes that Ellie’s dream wasn’t about the destination—it was about the journey they shared together. This realization begins to lift Carl’s emotional burden, indicating a shift from despair to a more positive sense of purpose. By the end of the movie, Carl finds new purpose by engaging in a meaningful relationship with Russell, demonstrating a sense of integrity and acceptance.

The industry vs. inferiority stage occurs between ages 6 and 12, it is during this stage where children develop a sense of competence (often through school and social activities). If children are successful and receive positive reinforcement, they feel a sense of industry and confidence in their abilities (Cherry, 2024b). However, if they struggle or face criticism, they may develop inferiority, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem (Cherry, 2024b). In the movie Up, Russell is a 9-year-old boy scout, placing him in Erikson’s stage of industry vs. inferiority. Russell is determined to earn his final merit badge for assisting the elderly, which reflects his desire to develop competence and be recognized for his abilities. Throughout the film he faces challenges, such as his misguided attempts to be helpful to Carl and his feelings of being overlooked are dismissed, especially by Carl at the beginning (which we later learn is a reflection of Russell’s lack of attention from his father). Despite these setbacks, Russell continues to persevere, showing industry as he takes on tasks, helps Carl, and tries to prove his worth. By the end of the movie, Carl recognizes Russell’s dedication, and Russell earns the merit badge which boosts his confidence and sense of accomplishment, reinforcing his sense of industry. His journey reflects the process of building self-esteem through mastering challenges and receiving validation from others.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is the process of learning to think, reason, and use knowledge. It involves brain development and the ability to solve problems, make decisions, and explore (Malik & Marwaha, 2023). Carl’s character arc also reflects the cognitive aspect of development. Initially, Carl is focused on the past, reluctant to change, and caught in his memories with Ellie. For example, Carl’s decision to attach thousands of balloons to his house and float it to Paradise Falls represents his attempt to hold on to the dream he and Ellie had. His decision-making is driven by nostalgia and a desire to fulfil an old goal, rather than considering how to build new meaningful experiences in the present. Over time he learns to embrace the present and opens himself to the new experiences, illustrating a shift in cognitive flexibility and growth. As Carl embarks on his adventure with Russell, however, his cognitive development becomes evident. He begins to reconsider his perspectives, realizing that the journey to Paradise Falls, while important, was never about the destination, but the shared experiences with Ellie. This shift in Carl’s thinking symbolizes his cognitive flexibility, as he learns that life can be meaningful even if it does not unfold exactly as planned. His willingness to move past his grief and open himself to new experiences shows a maturation in his cognitive abilities, as he begins to adapt to the present. This mirrors the idea that cognitive development does not stop in adulthood but continues as people adapt and grow emotionally (Hochberg & Konner, 2020).

Russell can be analyzed through Jean Piaget’s concrete operational stage (ages 7-11), where children develop logical thinking but still struggle with abstract concepts. Throughout the movie, Russell demonstrates structured thinking, particularly in how he follows the rules of his Wilderness Explorer program. He believes that completing specific tasks will earn him badges, reflecting Piaget’s idea that children in this stage rely on concrete, step-by-step reasoning. Unlike younger children in the preoperational stage (ages 2-7), who are more egocentric (Cherry, 2024c), Russell begins to show empathy and concern for others. His determination to help Mr. Fredricksen, even when rejected, suggests that he is developing the ability to understand different perspectives. He also values social structures, such as the Wilderness Explorer program, which aligns with Piaget’s theory that children in this stage begin to grasp structured systems and rules (Cherry, 2024c). However, as the story progresses, Russell learns that following rules blindly does not always lead to the right decisions. For example, when he realizes that Charles Muntz is not the hero he once admired, he begins to think more critically about trust and morality. This shift demonstrates Piaget’s idea that children in this stage start to apply logic to social situations and challenge their initial assumptions. Russell’s character also highlights the emotional aspects of this stage. His longing for attention from his absent father influences his need for validation through the Explorer program. This emotional development ties into Piaget’s belief that cognitive growth is linked to personal experiences (Cherry, 2024c). By the end of the movie, Russell moves beyond rigid rule-following and begins to think more independently, showing growth in both reasoning and emotional maturity. His journey reflects the key traits of the concrete operational stage, as he learns to balance structure with flexibility and logic with compassion.

Conclusion

In Up, Carl and Russell’s journeys reflect key psychological and developmental theories, illustrating how grief, personal growth, and human connection shape our lives. Carl’s transition from despair to acceptance aligns with Erikson’s integrity vs. despair stage, while Russell’s evolving sense of confidence and moral reasoning reflects Piaget’s concrete operational stage and Erikson’s industry vs. inferiority stage. Their relationship highlights the importance of emotional healing, resilience, and finding purpose beyond loss. Ultimately, Up conveys that life’s greatest adventures are not just about reaching a destination but about the meaningful relationships we build along the way. Carl and Russell’s story serves as a reminder that growth is a lifelong process, and even in the face of loss, new experiences and connections can bring renewed purpose and joy.

References

Cherry, K. (2024a, May 2). Erikson's Stages of Development. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

Cherry, K. (2024b, October 25). Industry vs. inferiority in psychosocial development: Middle Childhood. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/industry-versus-inferiority-2795736

Cherry, K. (2024c, May 1). Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development explained. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

Cherry, K (2025, February 7). Integrity vs. Despair in Psychosocial Development. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/integrity-versus-despair-2795738

Docter, P. (Director). (2009). Up. [Film]. Pixar Animation Studio.

Hochberg, Z., & Konner, M. (2020). Emerging adulthood, a pre-adult life-history stage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(5), 2070–2072. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922105117

Malik, F., & Marwaha, R. (2023, April 23). Cognitive development. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537095/

McLeod, S. (2024, January 24). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Simply Psychology https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Tyrrell, P., Harberger, S., Schoo, C., & Siddiqui, W. (2023, February 26). Kubler-Ross Stages of Dying and Subsequent Models of Grief. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507885

Kiley Bilicich is a first-year nursing student at Holy Family University and when she graduates she hopes to become a NICU or PICU nurse. In the mean times Kiley enjoys hanging out with her dogs, going to church, and being outside.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

NOTE: This article discusses topics related to intimate partner violence (IPV), which may be distressing or triggering for some readers. If you or someone you know is experiencing abuse, please consider reaching out to a trusted support service or contacting the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 or by texting "START" to 88788. You are not alone.

She's imperfect, but she tries
She is good, but she lies
She is hard on herself
She is broken and won't ask for help
She is messy, but she's kind
She is lonely most of the time
She is all of this mixed up
And baked in a beautiful pie
She is gone, but she used to be mine
-She Used to be Mine

Set in a small-town diner, Waitress: The Musical follows Jenna Hunterson, a talented pie baker working as a waitress (Sullivan & Paulus, 2023). Trapped in an abusive marriage to her controlling husband Earl, Jenna dreams of a better life. When she finds out she is unexpectedly pregnant with Earl’s baby, she begins to seek change and control over her future. Jenna finds comfort and community with her quirky and loyal friends/coworkers, Becky and Dawn. She also begins an affair with her gynecologist, Dr. Jim Pomatter, which sparks both excitement and moral conflict. As Jenna contemplates entering a local pie contest as a means to escape her current life, she must navigate her feelings, her responsibilities, and the question of what she truly wants for herself and her baby. In exploring themes like intimate partner violence, infidelity, and morality, the true strength of the show lies in the realistic portrayal of relationships in all their messy, ugly, complicated, and beautiful glory.

Stuck-in-the-Mud Maple Pie: Intimate Partner Violence

“Opening up | Into a new day | Open to love | Isn't it amazing what comes our way” - Opening Up

Perhaps the most poignant theme in Waitress: The Musical is just how complicated relationships can be. We learn early on that Jenna is trapped in a toxic and emotionally abusive marriage. Intimate partner violence (IPV, also referred to as domestic violence), refers to any act of physical assault, sexual abuse, or other criminal behavior that causes harm or injury to a family member (Farrell, 2013). Unfortunately, Jenna’s story is the case for 30% of women in America who experience IPV at the hands of their romantic partners (Mazza et al., 2021). Like many perpetrators of IPV, Earl engages in various forms of aggression toward Jenna. There are several scenes where he physically grabs her arms, forcibly shoves a finger in her face, or raises a hand as if to hit her. In fact, Jenna reveals her pregnancy to Earl as he approaches her menacingly, it is presumably only him learning about the baby that saves her from physical harm in that moment (Sullivan & Paulus, 2023).

From the outside, it can be easy to ask “why doesn’t she just leave?” But it’s not that easy—Jenna’s relationship with Earl powerfully illustrates how leaving an abusive partner is often incredibly difficult due to a complex interplay of psychological, emotional, financial, and social factors. Earl is emotionally manipulative, telling Jenna she better not love the baby more than him. He is controlling of Jenna’s finances, her movements, and even her sense of self-worth. He frequently demands reassurance that she loves him, using guilt and intimidation to maintain his power over her. At one point he throws it in Jenna’s face that he was the only one who was there for her when her mother died, implying a sense of ownership or debt. Fear is another major barrier; abusers often threaten harm to the woman, their children, or themselves if they attempt to leave. In a particularly gut-wrenching scene, we see Earl threaten to harm or kill himself if Jenna were to leave him (Sullivan & Paulus, 2023).

Like many survivors, Jenna also faces learned helplessness—she feels trapped, believing that no matter what she does, she can't change her circumstances or escape the relationship (Seligman, 1975). Earl’s threats, including taking away her money for the pie contest, heighten her fear and dependence. Moreover, Jenna’s financial insecurity initially makes leaving feel impossible. It’s only through small moments of agency—like saving her tip money, relying on her friends at the diner, feeling validated by Dr. Pomatter, and ultimately deciding to protect her child from growing up in the same environment—that she begins to break free. Her journey highlights the real-life complexities many women face when trying to leave abusive partners: it’s not weakness, but the result of fear, manipulation, and systemic barriers that make walking away so hard.

Speaking of leaving, research shows that, on average, it can take a woman seven attempts to leave a violent relationship for good (National Domestic Violence Hotline, n.d.). This statistic reflects the deep complexity of abusive dynamics, where emotional manipulation, financial dependence, fear, and trauma bonding can all make it incredibly difficult to escape. Jenna’s journey mirrors this reality. Despite her growing awareness of Earl’s control and the pain he causes her, she remains in the relationship for a significant part of the story. Like many survivors, Jenna oscillates between moments of hope that things might improve and a growing sense of despair. It’s not until she recognizes her own worth—and the need to protect her child from the same toxic environment—that she finds the courage to break free.

Another important point about violence more broadly is that it is often cyclical—previously experiencing or witnessing violence is one of the strongest predictors for experiencing future violence (McCloud, & Abdullah, 2024). While we don’t know much about Jenna’s past, she alludes to a father who was drunk and violent (at one point she tells Dr. Pomatter that her mama kept her in the kitchen while her dad was in one of his moods; Sullivan & Paulus, 2023). We can speculate that Jenna grew up with some degree of violence in her home, which may help explain her current circumstances with Earl. It also helps to explain why motherhood, perhaps made even more salient by the fact that she has a daughter, is the final straw in her decision to leave Earl. As with many women experiencing IPV, Jenna’s path is not linear, and her hesitation is not weakness—it’s a reflection of the psychological and situational barriers many women face. Jenna’s story shines a light on how leaving an abusive relationship is not a single decision, but a process of reclaiming power, often made in a series of small, courageous steps.

Forbidden Fruit Pie: Infidelity

“It only takes a taste when you know it's good | Sometimes one bite is more than enough | To know you want more of the thing you just got a taste of” – It Only Takes a Taste

In addition to, or perhaps because of, the toxic relationship between Jenna and Earl, we see Jenna embark on an affair with her married gynecologist, Dr. Pomatter. Despite what your own moral compass may say about infidelity, one of the strengths of Waitress: the Musical is the ability to take a nuanced view of marriage. Infidelity is portrayed not simply as a moral failing, but as a complex psychological response to trauma, unmet emotional needs, and a longing for autonomy. Jenna’s affair with Dr. Pomatter emerges during a period of profound vulnerability, as she feels trapped in an abusive, controlling marriage and deprived of genuine affection or respect. Psychologically, her infidelity can be seen as a coping mechanism—an attempt to reclaim a sense of agency, identity, and emotional connection after prolonged isolation and fear. From a trauma-informed lens, her actions reflect what some researchers call escape behavior, where individuals seek temporary relief from distressing circumstances (APA, 2018). Rather than glamorizing or vilifying the affair, the musical presents it with emotional nuance, showing Jenna’s internal conflict, guilt, and the bittersweet consequences of her choices.

Infidelity is not only explored in Jenna's story, but also through the quieter subplots involving an affair between Cal (the diner owner) and Becky. Cal and Ethel’s relationship subtly hints at a long-standing dissatisfaction—at one point it’s suggested that Ethel is gay. In contrast, Becky’s affair with Cal is more overt, framed as a release from the burdens of caretaking her husband (Phil). Becky openly acknowledges that her marriage, though rooted in duty and history, no longer meets her emotional or physical needs. When Jenna asks why Becky and Cal don’t leave their partners, Becky responds by simply saying because we love them (Sullivan & Paulus, 2023). This may feel counterintuitive—society presents infidelity and love as being mutually exclusive. But research in this area suggests that infidelity is often less about not loving or desiring to leave a partner and more about restoring a sense of self that feels lost (Selterman et al., 2019). In this way, Becky’s choice isn’t painted as purely selfish or immoral—it’s portrayed as a complicated act of survival and self-expression within the emotional confines of her life.

Taken together, the various affairs presented in the show highlight the ways in which unmet intimacy, stress, and feelings of invisibility can lead individuals to seek validation and connection outside their primary relationship. This portrayal invites audiences to consider how trauma and powerlessness can shape behavior in ways that defy black-and-white moral judgments, highlighting the psychological reality behind what may seem like impulsive or “irrational” decisions.

Belonging-Berry Pie: Desire and Belonging

“You matter to me | I promise you do, you, you matter too” – You Matter to Me

Another aspect of relationships that is vividly portrayed in Waitress: The Musical is that of belonging and desire. The song "You Matter to Me," sung by Jenna and Dr. Pomatter, beautifully captures the essence of the need to belong theory, a fundamental human motivation described by Baumeister and Leary (1995). This theory posits that people have an innate drive to form and maintain close, meaningful relationships. In the song, Dr. Pomatter gently affirms Jenna's worth—not through grand gestures, but by offering consistent presence, emotional safety, and acceptance. For Jenna, who has been emotionally neglected and devalued in her marriage to Earl, hearing “you matter to me” meets a deep psychological need for validation and connection. The quiet intimacy of the song reflects how powerful it can be for someone in pain to feel seen, heard, and valued without conditions. It’s not about romantic fantasy—it’s about belonging in a world where she often feels invisible. The song becomes a turning point for Jenna, reminding her that she is worthy of care, and demonstrating how even brief experiences of authentic connection can help heal attachment wounds and restore a sense of self.

But more so than belonging, Jenna longs to feel desired. Sexual desire is portrayed as both a source of empowerment and complexity, especially for women navigating oppressive or unfulfilling relationships. For Jenna, her affair with Dr. Pomatter reignites a sense of aliveness and bodily autonomy after years of emotional and physical neglect by her abusive husband. The song "It’s a Bad Idea, Me and You" captures the raw, impulsive nature of sexual desire as Jenna and Dr. Pomatter grapple with, and ultimately surrender to, their attraction to each other. The playful and energetic lyrics reflect a mix of longing and tension, as both characters acknowledge the potential consequences of their actions while still being drawn to one another. We see sexual desire portrayed as not just a physical experience, but as an emotional release from the emotional isolation both Jenna and Dr. Pomatter feel in their lives, creating an intoxicating sense of freedom and rebellion.

Similarly, Becky’s bold sexuality and unapologetic affair reflect her need for intimacy and joy amidst the burden of caregiving and emotional stagnation in her marriage. These portrayals challenge the cultural expectation that women should suppress or feel ashamed of sexual desire, instead presenting it as a deeply human need tied to self-worth, emotional connection, and identity. From a psychological standpoint, sexual desire in the musical functions not simply as lust, but as a form of self-expression and agency, particularly for women who have been denied choice in other areas of their lives. In doing so, Waitress: The Musical reclaims female desire from shame and frames it as something deeply personal, nuanced, and, at times, liberating.

New Beginnings Chocolate Cherry Pie: Conclusion

Waitress: The Musical offers a rich and emotionally resonant lens through which to explore key psychological themes such as intimate partner violence, infidelity, and the fundamental human need for connection. Through its complex characters and their relationships, the musical reflects how psychological struggles unfold in everyday life, often quietly and beneath the surface. Rather than portraying its characters as morally simple or purely victims, we can explore their emotional depth, survival strategies, and desire for meaning. By weaving together humor, vulnerability, and transformation, the show provides a compassionate and insightful portrayal of the human psyche, making it not only a compelling piece of theater but also a powerful tool for understanding the lived realities behind psychological theory.

References

American Psychological Association. (2018). Escape behavior. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/escape-behavior

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Farrell, H. M. (July 16, 2013). Intimate partner violence: Health consequences and the importance of screening. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/frontpage-forensics/201307/intimate-partner-violence

Mazza, M., Marano, G., Del Castillo, A. G., Chieffo, D., Monti, L., Janiri, D., Moccia, L., & Sani, G. (2021). Intimate partner violence: A loop of abuse, depression and victimization. World Journal of Psychiatry, 11(6), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v11.i6.215

McCloud, B., & Abdullah, A. (2024). Theoretical analysis of the cycle of intimate partner violence: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241301781

National Domestic Violence Hotline. (n.d.). Why do people stay in abusive relationships? https://www.thehotline.org/resources/why-do-people-stay-in-abusive-relationships

Sullivan, B. & Paulus, D. (Directors). (2023). Waitress: the Musical [Proshot recording]. Dear Hope Productions.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

“Welcome to the Rock if you come from away
You probably understand about a half of what we say
They say no man's an island, but an island makes a man
'Specially when one comes from one like Newfoundland”
– Welcome to the Rock

Although most Americans know the tragic story of the four planes that were hijacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001, far fewer know what happened to the rest of the planes that were in the air that day. Once it became clear that America was under attack, it became critical to ground all planes immediately until the full extent of the terrorist plot was known. Thirty-eight of those planes were routed to a small island in Newfoundland, Canada, known as Gander. Come From Away (Ashley, 2021) is based on the true stories of the people of Gander and the 7,000 airline passengers who were stranded there for several days immediately following the attack. The musical brings to life the extraordinary kindness and generosity of the Gander community, which welcomed and cared for the passengers in a time of immense uncertainty.

What people may not realize is that many of the storylines in Come From Away are based on true stories. Beverly Bass truly was the first female captain of an American airlines plane. Her song “Me and the Sky” (Ashley, 2021) is a powerful ode to her love of flying… and the violation she felt upon learning that someone had weaponized “the one thing [she] loved more than anything”. Beulah Cooper and Hannah O’Rourke, both mothers of firefighters, bonded over the loss of Hannah’s son. Bonnie Harris, the head of the SPCA, really did defy orders to advocate for the animals on the plane (and yes, there really were 2 rare Bonobo chimpanzees on board!). To learn more about the true stories of the folks in Gander, check out this article and video.

I teach a Psychology of Musical Theater class where my students and I watch a series of musicals and consider the psychology themes present in the story. With the full knowledge that this is the first time many of my students will be exposed to musical theater, I choose the shows carefully, trying to strike a balance between modern and classic, gritty and lighthearted, fantastical and realistic. The second time I taught the course I decided to assign the pro shot (a professionally filmed recording of a live performance) of Come From Away, with no idea how my students would react to it. Most of my students were born after 2001, the few who were alive at the time were infants. While they may have heard stories, none of them remember what it was like to hear the news, or to live in America immediately following the attacks.

When I told them we were going to watch a musical about 9/11 they were (understandably) skeptical. Many of them wrote things in their discussion posts like “I went into this show somewhat blindly, and I wasn’t really sure how a musical could [respectfully] tackle something as heartbreaking and tragic as the 9/11 attacks” and “at first, I wasn’t sure about a musical based on 9/11, but it ended up being more uplifting than I thought.” Overall opinion on the show was mixed, earning a 6.5/10 in my informal class poll (to be fair, this was the first pro shot we viewed, compared to a movie musical, which confounds those ratings a bit). But the conversations we had were fascinating—about fear, uncertainty, loss, cultural understanding, and, above all else, how tragedy is the great equalizer.

Why is it that uncertainty often leads to fear? Ambiguity can be scary, and in the absence of familiarity, we often default right to a sense of distrust. In a way, this is adaptive, and functions to keep us safe in new or unfamiliar settings. If you are in a room full of strangers, you do not know whether any of them might mean you harm. But it can also lead to jumping to conclusions… which often makes things worse, rather than better. There are a few different psychological explanations for this tendency to leap towards fear.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Cognitive Appraisal Theory suggests that emotions arise from an individual's evaluation of a situation. Proposed by Richard Lazarus (1966), this theoretical model of emotions explains how individuals evaluate and interpret events to determine their emotional responses. According to this theory, emotions arise not from the events themselves but from a person’s assessment of the significance of those events in relation to their well-being. This appraisal process involves two stages: primary appraisal, where an individual assesses whether a situation is threatening, beneficial, or irrelevant; and secondary appraisal, where they evaluate their ability to cope with the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, two people experiencing the same stressful event—such as losing a job—may react differently based on their appraisals; one may see it as a catastrophic failure, leading to anxiety and depression, while another may perceive it as an opportunity for growth, fostering motivation and resilience.

These cognitive appraisals play a key role in shaping the fear and uncertainty experienced in Come From Away. The stranded passengers assess their circumstances—being rerouted to an unfamiliar place in the wake of a terrorist attack—through the lens of potential danger, loss of control, and separation from loved ones, leading to heightened fear and anxiety. However, as they reappraise their situation over time, many shift their emotional responses from fear to gratitude and connection, demonstrating how cognitive evaluations influence emotional adaptation. The kindness of the Gander residents provides a crucial reassessment cue, allowing passengers to reinterpret their situation as one of unexpected safety and community rather than solely fear and distress. This shift underscores the role of cognitive appraisals in understanding how individuals emotionally navigate crisis, uncertainty, and ultimately, resilience.

Social Contagion Theory

Social Contagion Theory is another way to conceptualize the fear and uncertainty depicted in Come From Away. This theory suggests that emotions, behaviors, and ideas can spread rapidly within a group, much like a virus, influencing individuals based on their social interactions. Originally explored by Le Bon (1895) in his work on crowd psychology, the theory has since been expanded to explain how people unconsciously adopt the emotions and behaviors of those around them. This phenomenon is particularly evident in situations of fear and uncertainty, where collective anxiety can escalate due to shared emotional responses.

As the passengers process the shocking news of 9/11, their collective anxiety amplifies as they share information, speculate about loved ones, and absorb each other’s distress. Fear spreads quickly, fueled by limited communication with the outside world and a heightened sense of unpredictability. During the song “28 Hours/Wherever we are,” we hear the passengers trapped on the plane struggle with the lack of information. They repeatedly mention the fear and frustration of not knowing what was happening. We hear the panic begin to escalate as the rumors begin flying around: there was an accident, the US airspace is closed, a helicopter crashed into a building, the White House was bombed, it’s World War III! (Ashley, 2021; 17:12) This scene beautifully demonstrates the power of social contagion, and how fear and uncertainty can lead to the rapid spread of misinformation.

Social Identity Theory

To make things even more complicated, in ambiguous circumstances, people often vilify those who are different. When faced with uncertainty, individuals seek clarity and security, often turning to their social groups for reassurance. This can lead to an "us versus them" mentality, where those who look, think, or act differently are perceived as threats. Social identity theory, proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1979), suggests that individuals derive part of their identity from the groups to which they belong (e.g., ethnicity, religion, or nationality). This identification often leads to in-group favoritism, where people view members of their own group more positively, and out-group discrimination, where those outside the group are often devalued. The theory emphasizes that these group-based affiliations are not only central to self-esteem but also shape behaviors and attitudes toward others.

In Come From Away, the vilification of those who are different emerges as a response to the fear and uncertainty surrounding the events of 9/11. As thousands of passengers from diverse backgrounds are stranded in Gander, the townspeople initially struggle with their own biases and apprehensions, particularly toward Muslim passengers. This reaction reflects the human tendency to seek security in what is familiar while viewing outsiders with suspicion during times of crisis. One of the most striking examples is the treatment of Ali, a Muslim passenger, who faces heightened scrutiny and fear throughout the show simply because of his religion and the color of his skin (Ashley, 2021). His experience mirrors real-world instances of scapegoating and Islamophobia that surged after 9/11, as fear led people to make snap judgments about those who looked or acted differently. In fact, discrimination and negative attitudes towards people of Muslim descent remain high, even more than 20 years after 9/11 (Bozhiwa, 2024).

Collective Healing

But there’s a silver lining – although uncertainty can lead to fear, it can also lead to friendship. Cognitive appraisals can be positive. Social contagion can allow us to spread kindness rather than panic. Social identity theory can allow us to accept those from our outgroup. In Come From Away, collective healing plays a central role in the emotional transformation of both the residents of Gander and the stranded passengers after the traumatic events of 9/11. Although fear and uncertainty initially permeated the town, once the townspeople begin to open their hearts and offer support to the "plane people," they embark together on a shared journey of healing. The passengers, who come from a range of countries and religions, also begin to heal through the kindness and hospitality shown by the Gander community. There is a beautiful song called “The Prayer” where we witness people from different religions, races, and nationalities coming together in solidarity and to offer each other whatever support they can. This collective healing fosters deep connections, as individuals from diverse backgrounds come to understand each other's humanity, breaking down barriers and overcoming initial prejudices.

Conclusion

Come From Away (Ashley, 2021) is a powerful celebration of human resilience, kindness, and connection in the face of adversity. Through its portrayal of the true stories of the residents of Gander and the stranded passengers, the musical highlights how people from different backgrounds and cultures can come together during moments of crisis to support one another. The themes of community, acceptance, and empathy resonate throughout the show, demonstrating that even in the darkest times, acts of compassion can transcend fear and uncertainty. Come From Away not only honors the lives touched by the events of 9/11 but also serves as a reminder of the enduring power of kindness and unity in overcoming life's challenges.

References

Bozhiwa, T. K. (2024). Post-9/11 Racism and xenophobia's effects on Muslim students' persistence and belonging in U.S. higher education. The Vermont Connection, 45(1). https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/tvc/vol45/iss1/8

Ashley, C. (Director). (2021). Come From Away [Video]. Apple TV+.

Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. McGraw-Hill.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.

Le Bon, G. (1895). The crowd: A study of the popular mind. Ernest Benn.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

If my mind had a Spotify playlist, it would be titled “Unsolicited Thoughts at 3 AM.” And if it had only one track, it would be an endless loop of “Why Did I Say That in 2012?”

Yes, my friends, I am a recovering cognitive ruminator.

For those unfamiliar with the term, cognitive rumination refers to the tendency to repetitively dwell on negative thoughts, past mistakes, or unsolvable problems—often with no productive outcome (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). It’s like mentally replaying an embarrassing moment in high definition or obsessively dissecting a situation long after it has passed.

As a result, chronic rumination has been linked to anxiety, depression, and even impaired cognitive flexibility (Watkins, 2008). It can hijack your brain, leaving you exhausted and unfocused, like an endless loop of self-criticism, regret, and worry.

For years, my mind was like a cow: chewing, regurgitating, and rechewing the same thoughts. It was like this, that is, until I stumbled upon meditation, the unexpected solution that helped me break free.

Research suggests that individuals prone to rumination tend to have lower problem-solving abilities and increased emotional distress (Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995). And the more we ruminate, the harder it becomes to break the cycle. Ironically, the harder we try to force ourselves to stop thinking, the more our brains rebel (Wegner, 1994).

I tried everything: distractions, journaling, rationalizing, even arguing with myself with Enough!’s and Stop thinking about it!’s… only to think about it more.

It wasn’t until I learned about meditation that things began to shift. Meditation, particularly mindfulness-based meditation, has been shown to reduce rumination and increase cognitive control by strengthening the prefrontal cortex, the brain’s executive center (Zeidan et al., 2010).

Essentially, meditation trains your mind not to stop thinking, but to change how you relate to your thoughts.

At first, meditating felt impossible. I would try to focus on my breath, but my brain had other plans:

“Remember that awkward thing you said in 6th grade?”

“What if the barista judges your oat milk order?”

“Wait, do giraffes have vocal cords?”

But here’s what I discovered: I didn’t need to stop my thoughts. I just needed to observe them without getting stuck.

Studies have shown that mindfulness meditation reduces activity in the default mode network (DMN), the part of the brain responsible for self-referential thoughts and mind-wandering (Brewer et al., 2011). By practicing nonjudgmental awareness, I slowly began to notice my thoughts as if they were passing clouds rather than truths I had to engage with.

The more I practiced, the more my focus improved, my anxiety decreased, and, most importantly, I realized that not every thought deserved my attention.

Are you a cognitive ruminator?

If so, try this: if you find yourself trapped in mental loops, here are three research-backed strategies to help break the cycle.

1. When you’re ruminating, count down from 5 and immediately shift to a different activity (Mel Robbins, 2017). A quick pattern interrupt—like stretching, shaking your body, or saying something out loud—can stop rumination in its tracks.
2. You don’t need to meditate for hours. Simply close your eyes and focus on your breath for 60 seconds. A study by Tang et al. (2015) found that even short-term mindfulness training improves attention and emotional regulation.
3. When a ruminative thought appears, label it without judgment: "Oh, another catastrophic prediction. Thanks, brain!" This simple technique—known as cognitive distancing—has been found to reduce emotional distress (Kross et al., 2005).

Meditation didn’t magically silence my mind or transform it into an eternal Zen sanctuary (I still find myself revisiting old conversations and misplaced regrets), but it did something far more profound; it taught me how to coexist with my thoughts without being consumed by them.

If your mind, like mine, tends to spiral into relentless over analysis, know that you are not broken, nor are you alone. The mind will think. That’s what it does. But through meditation, you might just discover that your thoughts are not chains but passing waves. They do not define you, nor do they hold the power you once believed they did.

References

Brewer, J. A., Worhunsky, P. D., Gray, J. R., Tang, Y. Y., Weber, J., & Kober, H. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness and decreased activity in the default mode network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20254–20259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112029108

Kross, E., Ayduk, Ö., & Mischel, W. (2005). When asking “why” does not hurt: Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16(9), 709–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01600.x

Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(1), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.176

Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504

Robbins, M. (2017). The 5 second rule: Transform your life, work, and confidence with everyday courage. Savio Republic.

Tang, Y. Y., Holzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16, 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3916

Watkins, E. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 163–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163

Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101(1), 34–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.101.1.34

Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(2), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014

Claudia Zamora, BS Psy, Lic., is a dedicated advocate for personal growth and emotional transformation. With a deep passion for bridging introspection and science, she empowers readers to navigate the complexities of the mind and find meaning in everyday life. Explore her work at claudiazamora.com or follow her on Instagram at @claudiazamora6407.

Note: Trauma is a deeply personal and subjective experience, and no two individuals experience or process it in the same way. The impact of trauma varies based on factors such as personal history, coping mechanisms, and individual resilience. While psychological theories and research can provide general frameworks for understanding trauma, each person’s experience is unique and should be approached with empathy and without assumptions.

Introduction

Encanto (Bush & Howard, 2021) has taken all media outlets by storm since its 2021 release. Set in an enchanted realm within the Columbian mountains, Encanto follows the story of Mirabel Madrigal, her family, and their village. Mirabel is an ordinary girl who lives in her magical family home, named Casita, filled with her magical family members: her mother Julieta and father Agustin, older sisters Isabela and Luisa, aunt Pepa and aunt Pepa’s husband Felix, and her cousins Dolores, Camilo, and Antonio. Mirabel’s family members are given powers, called “gifts,” by Casita when they are five years old, and these gifts are used to help the household and village. Her grandmother, Abuela Alma, like Mirabel, has no magical powers, but she is still the highly respected matriarch of Casita, as well as a central figure in the village within the encanto. Abuela Alma and her late husband, Pedro, led the villagers to the encanto 50 years before the film takes place, after Colombian raiders attacked their home, killed Pedro, and left Abuela Alma a widow to her triplets. From there, the encanto granted Abuela Alma the Casita and provided the villagers with a place to rebuild the home they lost. The Casita granted the triplets their own magical powers, and from there the family has grown in numbers and powers. However, Mirabel discovers Casita is crumbling (representing the Madrigal family as a whole), her family members are losing their powers (representing each person’s individual trauma), and the magic is disappearing fast, and it’s up to her, the least remarkable Madrigal, to save it. Mirabel does save the day; but to do so, she must address the problem of intergenerational trauma and begin the all-too-hard conversations that have taken place in households worldwide since. This article will explain the different ways intergenerational trauma can manifest itself and how each way connects to each character in the Madrigal family, as well as how that trauma begins.

Intergenerational Trauma

The Triplets: Julieta, Pepa, and Bruno

Abuela Alma has triplets, two daughters Julieta and Pepa, and a son, Bruno. Julieta’s gift is cooking food that heals the sick and injured. Pepa’s emotions affect the weather. Bruno can see into the future—although his visions are never absolute. Julieta, the oldest of the triplets, shows signs of having a “fixer” personality, needing to heal others while ignoring her own trauma (McKenna, 2023). Abuela Alma repeatedly commands Pepa to hide her strong emotions, leading Pepa into distrusting and not learning to manage her own emotions (Holland, 2021). Bruno, the youngest, is considered the black sheep of the children, often burdened with being the bearer of bad news that upsets Abuela Alma, perhaps leading to her tendency to only see the worst in him (Gilbertson, 2019).

Throughout the film, Julieta is soft-spoken and self-sacrificing, cooking for hundreds of people every day to ensure everyone is healthy and taken care of. She also serves as a liaison between Abuela Alma and the rest of the family, occasionally (albeit softly and unsuccessfully) challenging Abuela Alma when she is too hard on family members (especially Mirabel). Abuela Alma builds the Encanto with Julieta serving as her assistant and, likely, acting as a second mother to her siblings. Being parentified at a young age, Julieta may have felt the responsibility to mature quickly, consequently suppressing her emotions and needs in the process and ultimately leading to passing down her own parentification-related trauma to her children by being put in an adult’s shoes much too early (McKenna, 2023). This also aligns with the theme that families from collective cultures (such as Asian and Hispanic cultures) are often expected to put familial needs above their own. Julieta likely would have been somewhat of a fixer regardless, but her mother losing her husband and home in such a brutal way only exacerbated the ‘need’ for her (and her siblings to a lesser degree) to step up.

Pepa, the middle triplet, is often seen quickly shifting between emotional extremes, seemingly unprovoked, as the weather followed her cue. Abuela Alma is quick to dismiss Pepa’s emotions, often insisting Pepa suppress her negative emotions. Pepa repeats her mantra “Clear skies” whenever she feels these negative emotions coming on. However, when they’re too strong and break through, Abuela Alma tells Pepa to simply get them under control. We often see Pepa’s husband, Felix, attempt to console her. There is one clear difference between Felix and Abuela Alma: Felix never tells Pepa she needs to suppress her emotions, he just wishes she’d work through them with him. Unfortunately, Pepa’s childhood left little room to learn how to discuss and accept her emotions, making it difficult to discuss them with others even as an adult (Holland, 2021).

Bruno, the youngest of the triplets and only boy, is introduced as the estranged son of ten years at the beginning of the film. The Madrigals are given their powers by Casita at a young age at a ceremony, and we learn early on that Bruno disappeared after her unsuccessful miracle ceremony when Mirabel was five years old. No one knows where he went or why he left. Bruno’s powers provide him with a special insight or vision for those around him. Unfortunately, these insights have been heavily correlated with negative events, leading to Abuela Alma and the rest of the family and village to see him as bad news and refusing to talk about him, as referenced in “We Don’t Talk About Bruno.” As the song discusses, Bruno is considered the black sheep and seen as an outcast by his mother, which is a major reason why he hides from the family. Black sheep often become estranged from their families into adulthood, typically because they refuse to believe and behave as though everything is okay in order to keep the peace (Gilbertson, 2019).

Julieta’s Children: Isabela, Luisa, and Mirabel

Julieta and Agustin have three daughters: Isabela, Luisa, and our protagonist Mirabel. In the movie, Isabela is the 21-year-old first-born grandchild to Abuela Alma, her power being to grow flowers at will (particularly roses). Luisa is 19 years old with super strength; and Mirabel is 15 years old without any powers. There is clear favoritism from Abuela Alma toward Isabela, and she’s referred to as the “perfect golden child” due to being the oldest grandchild and for her physical resemblance of a younger Abuela Alma. Isabela is engaged to Mariano, who also happens to resemble a younger Pedro, so in a way Abuela Alma sees what could have been for herself and her late husband within Isabella and Mariano. This shows the audience that Abuela Alma appears to be living vicariously through Isabela, as she is seen practically planning Isabela’s life and has all but pushed Isabela into marrying Mariano. Throughout the film, we see Abuela Alma putting her unlived desires onto Isabela, perhaps to make up for the life she lost with her late husband, a highlight of vicarious living patterns (Good Therapy, 2024). Later in the movie, Isabela confesses to Mirabel that she never wanted to marry Mariano, but feels pressured to do so by the family, namely Abuela Alma. Isabela’s actions, words, and appearances are all done “perfectly,” though she doesn’t feel free to be herself, as she sings in “What Else Can I Do?” Like her mother, Isabela has a fixer attitude, but more so in a preventative fashion. By being perfect, she ensures she is not the cause of any problems with or for Abuela Alma. By the end of the movie, Mirabel helps Isabela find her authentic self, depicted when she starts growing vines, cacti, succulents, and other imperfect plants.

Luisa is tall, muscular with super strength, and is eager to serve others and please her family. Luisa is seen lifting bridges and churches, as well as deadlifting donkeys across the village, and is always handling whatever crisis her family and the villagers have. Luisa pushes herself to keep going and to not let her stress show, but she expresses in “Surface Pressure” that she feels like if she isn’t doing anything useful that she will let down the village and family. Because of this, Luisa is constantly working on something and never takes any time for her own self-care or relaxation in an attempt to show everyone how strong she is and how well she can carry other people’s burdens for them. In dysfunctional families, the person that seemingly holds everything together is typically the one who ends up being the first to break down; their breakdown leading to the realization of other existing problems. Like Isabela, Luisa also follows in her mom’s footsteps of being a “fixer.” Through the benefit of her powers, Luisa takes on a more hands-on approach for it by literally carrying the burdens of her family and the village.

Mirabel is the only grandchild without any powers, and she always expresses her love and pride for her family and is always seemingly happy and optimistic and willing to make her family proud of her. Mirabel is happy to be a part of her family, as she expresses in “The Family Madrigal” and is seemingly happy with herself, although she laments on not being like the rest of her family and feeling like an outcast in “Waiting For A Miracle.” Abuela Alma is hard on Mirabel, often implying that she’s always in the way because she has no powers. Abuela Alma shows this in the beginning of the movie when she suggests that Mirabel should find something else to do while she’s trying to help prepare for Antonio’s ceremony, and throughout the movie she makes comments to Mirabel that suggest she is causing problems by looking into Casita and the family trauma. Mirabel also receives comments from the villagers too. The village children tell her they would be sad if they were a Madrigal without powers like her, and a delivery man hands Mirabel a package and tells her “Mirabel? Delivery! I gave you the “special” since you’re the only Madrigal kid with no gift. I call it the “not special” special. Since uh, since you have no gift….Ooo and tell Antonio good luck. Last gift ceremony was a bummer, last one being yours that did not work.” (Bush & Howard, 2021).

Mirabel, like her uncle Bruno, is also a black sheep, but in a different way. While Bruno was the black sheep for sharing what was perceived as upsetting news, Mirabel uncovers uncomfortable truths within the family, such as Casita falling apart, Bruno leaving because of Abuela Alma, and that Casita is crumbling and the family is anxious and unhappy because of Abuela Alma’s impossible standards for them all. In a way, this shows that she’s taken on the fixer trait from her mother but in a more rebellious way. Mirabel wants to actually fix the root of the problems in the Madrigal family, even at the expense of solidifying her black sheep status, which in a dysfunctional family is considered a rebellious act.

Pepa’s Children: Dolores, Camilo, and Antonio

Pepa and Felix have three children as well: Dolores, Camilo, and Antonio. Dolores is the second-born grandchild and 21-years-old like Isabela, and her power is hypervigilant hearing. Dolores is quiet. This is likely due to growing up close in age with Isabela and being Pepa’s oldest child, which can allow her to be considered a “shadow child.” A shadow child is someone who grows up in a chaotic environment and learns to suppress their thoughts and emotions in an effort to control their personal space and surrounding environment (Dallmann-Jones, 2020). The added benefit of hearing everything means Dolores can stay in the loop regarding family drama and get ahead of it before it can impact her directly. In Encanto, we see Dolores hearing everything between the family and only disclosing information if it suits her needs, keeping secrets if she knows the truth would derail any appearance of a perfect family. For example, Dolores is in love with Mariano and knows Isabela does not wish to marry him but keeps both a secret to ensure the family’s happiness, especially Abuela Alma’s. Dolores also does not disclose that Bruno is still quietly living within the walls of Casita for the same reasons.

Camilo is a 15-year-old boy and Abuela Alma’s first grandson. His power is shapeshifting which is a perfect metaphor for him being a “chameleon child,” a child who has a personality that changes depending on with whom they are currently around. This is a popular defense mechanism that allows the child to be a people pleaser in every situation, which is apparent throughout the movie (Garber, 2014). Camilo can be seen shapeshifting to help villagers, make his siblings and cousins laugh, and most especially will shape-shift based on the needs of Abuela Alma. This quick readiness to shapeshift is compounded by his perceived need to help alleviate his mother’s stress (particularly from dealing with Abuela Alma) and be the family comedian to keep the peace.

Antonio, who has just turned five in Encanto, has his miracle ceremony at the beginning of the movie and learns that his powers allow him to communicate with and understand animals. In the movie, he’s shown preferring the company of animals to people, which is a common defense mechanism, especially for young children, when exposed to family trauma. This is because animals can provide a child with a sense of unconditional love and positive regard compared to emotionally volatile and/or unavailable families (Purewal et al., 2017). Upon learning his power, Antonio quickly invites an entire jungle full of animals into his room and spends the majority of his time with them.

Abuela Alma: The Source of the Trauma

Abuela Alma is 75-years old, a widow, and the Madrigal family matriarch who discovered and helped settle the Encanto. At the beginning of the movie, we find out that at 25-years old, Abuela Alma was widowed after her husband was killed in front of her by machete-wielding raiders, and her tears and pain created the magic that now protects her family and the villagers she helped lead away from danger, as shown by “Dos Oruguitas.” Abuela Alma, traumatized by this event, chooses to “bottle up” her emotions for the sake of her children and the villagers she now finds herself taking care of. Trauma can often cause an individual to experience short term physical, emotional, and behavioral reactions; long term trauma responses can include persistent fatigue, sleep disorders, nightmares, fear of recurrence, anxiety focused on flashbacks, depression, and avoidance of emotions, sensations, or activities that are associated with the trauma, even remotely (SAMHSA, 2014).

Abuela Alma displays long term trauma responses and has passed these responses down to her children and grandchildren. We see this in the high expectations she has for her family members to protect the household and village, her meticulous planning around ensuring her family shows their strength to the village, her own stunted emotional intelligence with her family, an she is often irritable and moody when she’s not in control of certain family members, namely Mirabel and Bruno. Abuela Alma is shown to run her household to her specifications and leaves very little room for her family members’ individual needs. Fortunately, by the end of the movie, she is able to see this and reconcile with her family, rebuild Casita, and everyone earns their powers back, which we see in the song “All Of You.” Healing from intergenerational trauma can take time and involve all family members to acknowledge their experienced trauma, as well as their part in continuing the cycle. It may require the practice of mindfulness and self-reflection, as well as the need to establish boundaries (Holly Hill Hospital, 2024). Additionally, there is a need to prioritize self-care and build a network of support outside the family, as well as, within the family (Holly Hill Hospital, 2024).

Conclusion

Encanto takes us all on a journey to find, acknowledge, and fix intergenerational trauma. While Disney does an excellent job summing up the process and arriving to the happily ever after quickly, resolving intergenerational trauma can be a life-long process that involves all members of the family to put in work and effort to make a better future for themselves and their family members to come. Encanto can be the icebreaker needed for families to get started on their healing journey.

References

Bush, J. & Howard, B. (Directors). (2021). Encanto. [Film]. Walt Disney Animation Studios

Dallmann-Jones , A. (2020). Who are the shadow children? – Understanding traits of at-risk youth. Marian University. https://www.marianuniversity.edu/news/who-are-the-shadow-children-understanding-traits-of-at-risk-youth/

Garber, B. D. (2014). The chameleon child: Children as actors in the high conflict divorce drama. Journal of Child Custody: Research, Issues, and Practices, 11(1), 25–40.

Gilbertson , T. (2019). Is your estranged adult child the black sheep of the family? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/constructive-wallowing/201912/is-your-estranged-adult-child-the-black-sheep-of-the-family

Good Therapy. (2024). Dreams on hold: Living vicariously through your child - CPA. Cristina Panaccione and Associates Counseling. https://cpa-counseling.com/your-dreams-on-hold-are-you-living-vicariously-through-your-child/

Holland, K. (2021). Childhood emotional neglect: What it is, and how it can affect you. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/childhood-emotional-neglect

McKenna, K. O. (2023). Navigating the fixer mentality - Understanding and overcoming. Sit With Kelly. https://www.sitwithkelly.com/blog/navigating-the-fixer-mentality

Purewal, R., Christley, R., Kordas, K., Joinson, C., Meints, K., Gee, N., & Westgarth, C. (2017). Companion animals and child/adolescent development: A systematic review of the evidence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030234

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Chapter 3: Understanding the Impact of Trauma. In Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioral Health Services: A Treatment Improvement Protocol (Ser. 57). essay, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).

Holly Hill Hospital. (2024). Understanding generational trauma and breaking the cycle. https://hollyhillhospital.com/blog/understanding-generational-trauma-breaking-the-cycle/

Kaitlyn L. Nasworthy is a magna cum laude Georgia Southern University alumni with a background in social and religious psychology, behaviorism, and sociology studies. Kaitlyn currently works as a public safety dispatcher at her alma mater and is a current student in their Evaluation, Assessment, Research, and Learning (EARL) MEd program. When not at work, Kaitlyn enjoys weightlifting and powerbuilding, reading, writing, and spending quality time with her husband, Kyle, and dog, Abby.

Shared Responsibilities, Shared Wins

A coadvisor can bring reinforcement where it’s needed most. Recruitment efforts become more strategic and far-reaching with two minds leading the charge. Member processing gains accuracy and timeliness, reducing administrative bottlenecks. Officer support becomes more personalized, as each advisor can mentor students more effectively.

More Collaboration, More Fun

Let’s face it—teaming up is simply more enjoyable than working alone. Collaboration allows advisors to brainstorm new chapter initiatives together, offer each other professional camaraderie and moral support, and celebrate chapter successes side-by-side.

Continuity Secured, Future-Proofed

Life happens—faculty change roles, retire, or move on. Having a coadvisor ensures that chapter continuity is preserved in the event that the primary advisor steps down. Students don’t experience a leadership vacuum, and institutional knowledge remains intact, providing smoother transitions.

Getting Started

Inviting a professor to be your Psi Chi coadvisor can be as simple as a friendly conversation. Highlight the benefits of collaboration, shared leadership, and continuity for your chapter, and express how their expertise would make a meaningful impact.

Once they've agreed, you can register them in the Psi Chi online system (advisor login required) to ensure they have full access to chapter resources and Psi Chi communications like the Advisor Digest email series. If you need any help with registering coadvisors online, please feel free to contact our Membership Department. Thank you for your service!

P.S. For more tips to support advisors, see our articles on Ideas to Increase Departmental Support for You and Your Chapter and Supporting Your Chapter Advisor.

Stanford Professor Dr. Philip Zimbardo, one of psychology’s most influential voices, passed away on October 14, 2024, at the age of 91. Although his name is most often associated with the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment and much of his early work focused on the psychology of evil, Zimbardo's later years were dedicated to something far more uplifting: understanding the psychology of heroism. He began asking what makes ordinary people take courageous action in difficult situations, and in 2010, he founded the Heroic Imagination Project (HIP), a nonprofit organization committed to empowering people to act with courage and integrity in their everyday lives. Since then, HIP has offered trainings and workshops around the world, and I've been fortunate to be a part of several, most recently an internationally attended HIP Level 2 training in the summer of 2024.

I didn’t realize just how much these trainings had reshaped the way I see the world until a quiet winter evening, when I found myself rewatching a Walt Disney film from 2014—Big Hero 6. I had last seen it with my young children, nearly a decade before I participated in the HIP trainings. At the time, it had struck me as a heartwarming, energetic adventure story with a lovable robot and a few good laughs. But watching it again with new eyes, I saw something entirely different. This time, the film read like a living case study in the psychology of heroism, filled with the very concepts Zimbardo spent his later life teaching: moral choice, resilience, and the quiet power of stepping up when it matters most.

A Hero Is Not Born, but Built

One of the core insights that HIP emphasizes is that heroism is not an inborn trait. It’s not limited to a select few with extraordinary bravery or physical strength. Instead, it’s a series of choices—a set of actions taken, often in ordinary moments, that push back against fear, apathy, or pressure to conform. Zimbardo referred to this as the banality of heroism (Franco & Zimbardo, 2006–07), a play on Hannah Arendt’s phrase “the banality of evil.” Just as people can commit harm without intending to, people can also make courageous choices in moments that fail to look heroic at first glance.

Hiro, the young protagonist of Big Hero 6, illustrates this beautifully. He begins the film as a directionless teenager, brilliant but emotionally adrift. After the sudden death of his brother Tadashi, Hiro teeters on the edge of vengeance. His pain is raw and understandable, but it nearly pulls him into a place of destruction. It’s Baymax, the soft-spoken, marshmallow-like healthcare robot Tadashi built, who serves as both a literal and metaphorical lifeline. With help from Tadashi’s college friends—Wasabi, GoGo, Honey Lemon, and Fred—Hiro finds his way back to something constructive.

What makes this journey compelling is not that Hiro puts on a super-suit or builds cool tech. It’s that he learns to pause, reflect, and choose. He transforms his pain into purpose. That process—slowing down our automatic reactions and making deliberate, values-driven decisions—is exactly what HIP training helps participants develop.

Resisting the Pull of the Crowd

Another powerful component of Zimbardo’s work is the idea of situational forces—the subtle but powerful ways our environments shape our behavior. HIP invites people to recognize these pressures and prepare for them (Zimbardo, 2012). Whether it’s peer influence, groupthink, bullying, or fear of embarrassment, these forces often nudge people toward inaction, especially when action feels risky.

This is where Big Hero 6 takes an unexpected psychological turn. The team that Hiro builds is not made up of natural fighters or traditional heroes. They're college students—brilliant, quirky, nerdy, and unsure of themselves. It would have been easy for them to sit back, believing the conflict wasn’t theirs to solve. Yet, they each step forward. They challenge what Zimbardo would have called the bystander effect, the tendency for individuals to be passive and fail to intervene in an emergency situation when others are present (Zimbardo, 2007). Instead of waiting for someone else to act, they act. They problem-solve together. They don’t always get it right. But they keep showing up. That, too, is heroism.

Preparing for the Moment That Matters

One of the most lasting takeaways from my HIP training was learning to spot moments of opportunity—those small but critical windows where a person can choose to act with courage. These moments rarely feel cinematic. More often, they’re awkward or uncomfortable: calling out a cruel joke, stepping in when someone’s excluded, or challenging a harmful norm. HIP emphasizes that moral courage can be strengthened in the same way we prepare for anything meaningful—through intention, practice, and reflection. Rewatching Big Hero 6, I began to notice how the characters move through their own forms of preparation. Hiro and his friends don’t just jump into action—they train, build trust, and wrestle with their emotions. Hiro’s decision not to destroy the villain isn’t spontaneous; it’s the result of Baymax’s steady emotional support, the memory of his brother’s values, and the team’s shared mission. These are all subtle forms of rehearsal. Baymax models persistence and empathy, gently guiding Hiro through grief toward a place where he can make a value-driven choice. The rest of the team repeatedly chooses to stay in the fight, even when the outcome is uncertain. They rely on each other, adapt their tools, and align their actions with their shared sense of purpose. None of them are born heroes—but through preparation, reflection, and practice, they become heroic.

Zimbardo often compared heroic readiness to rehearsing for a performance. The more we reflect on what we believe, picture ourselves responding with courage, and practice small acts of moral strength, the more prepared we are to act when the stakes are high (Franco & Zimbardo, 2006).

Big Hero 6 quietly but powerfully illustrates this truth: Heroism is not just something we feel—it’s something we train for.

A Shift in Lens

What changed for me between the first and second viewing of Big Hero 6 wasn’t the film—it was me. Not only was I a lot older, but I’d like to think I’d grown wiser. My understanding of what it means to be heroic had deepened from my experiences with HIP. I was no longer watching the film for entertainment alone. I was watching through a lens shaped by years of listening, reading, learning, reflecting, and intentionally training to better understand the psychology of making the world a better place by doing good, by becoming an everyday hero. And what I saw was a story that aligned beautifully with the very concepts HIP aims to cultivate in classrooms, boardrooms, and communities across the globe. Big Hero 6 doesn’t just entertain—it invites. It invites us to see that heroism doesn’t require a costume or a catchphrase. It begins with awareness, with paying attention, with choosing to lean in rather than step back.

Carrying Zimbardo’s Work Forward

As we reflect on the legacy of Dr. Zimbardo, it’s worth remembering that his greatest hope wasn’t to simply study human behavior—it was to change it for the better. His later work wasn’t about fear or power; it was about courage, empathy, and action. Through HIP he left us with a blueprint for how to live those values. And sometimes, unexpectedly, that blueprint shows up in places we don’t expect—like a Disney movie we once watched with our children, now viewed with new understanding and renewed purpose.

References

Franco, Z., & Zimbardo, P. (2006–07, Fall–Winter). The banality of heroism. Greater Good Magazine, 3(2), 3035. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/the_banality_of_heroism

Hall, D., & Williams, C. (Directors). (2014). Big Hero 6 [Film]. Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures

Zimbardo, P. G. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. Random House.

Kerri W. Augusto, PhD, LP, HSP, is a clinical psychologist who serves as the Director of Undergraduate Studies at William James College. She was inducted into the Colby College Chapter of Psi Chi in 1990, and currently serves as advisor for the William James Chapter.

Note: This article is intended for educational and entertainment purposes. Diagnosis of psychological disorders can only be made by a licensed mental health practitioner.

In the critically acclaimed television series Succession (Armstrong et al., 2018–2023), Kendall Roy, the initial heir-apparent of his father’s media conglomerate, displays behaviors and traits that align closely with borderline personality disorder (BPD). The show focuses on Kendall and his siblings’ vying for power over the media conglomerate, Waystar RoyCo, as their father’s health deteriorates throughout the show. Kendall is introduced as the Roy most likely to take reigns of the company, but his father’s abusive and Machiavellian tendencies cause strife between all members of the family—leading to Kendall becoming the outcast of the family. A key component of the show is the familial dynamics between the Roys. Kendall’s tumultuous relationships with his father, siblings, and colleagues coupled with his fractured identity suggest that his thought patterns and behavior are characteristic of BPD. Borderline personality disorder is defined as “[a] pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity, beginning in early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts…” (APA, 2022). Common diagnostic features include intense fear of abandonment, unstable relationship patterns, intense relationships, insecurity, extreme impulsivity, self-destructiveness, long periods of stress and/or anxiety followed by short periods of happiness, inappropriate anger, emotional dysregulation, and intense shame and/or guilt. This article will present evidence for Kendall displaying BPD in the form of a focus on interpersonal relations, emotions and sense of self, and other supporting evidence.

Erratic Relationship Patterns

Central to Kendall’s character are the erratic relationship patterns often seen in people with BPD. One of the key features of BPD is the fear of abandonment (APA, 2022), and Kendall displays this through bouts of paranoia regarding the possibility of colleagues, friends, and siblings turning on him or abandoning him; he usually deals with these fears by lashing out at the perceived persecutor, turning to drugs and alcohol, or committing self-destructive acts such as wantonly giving away possessions or committing crimes in public. Rava, Kendall’s ex-wife, is continuously hounded by Kendall’s attempts to win her back, demonstrating his inability to cope with abandonment. Throughout the show, Kendall has multiple love interests and tends to declare these interests as “the one” despite only briefly knowing them. One such interest gifted him a luxury watch while at one of his profligate parties, which sent Kendall into a disproportionate frenzy over the idea that no one is truly able to understand him.

One of the central conflicts of the show is Kendall’s relationship with his father, Logan. Throughout the show, Kendall oscillates between idolizing his father and considering his father a “malignant presence” (Armstrong et al., Season 2, Episode 10). Though these reactions may be proportionate to Logan’s extreme parenting (or lack thereof), Kendall also displays this pattern in his other relationships; this pattern is redolent of the concept of “splitting” associated with BPD (Story et al., 2023). Kendall is constantly shifting alliances between his siblings, friends, enemies, and business partners, and throughout these shifts, Kendall’s regard of these people also mutates. One such case of this is with his cousin, Greg; Kendall is initially indifferent to Greg, but when Greg allies himself with Kendall during one of Kendall’s takeover attempts, Kendall showers him with gifts and even buys Greg a luxurious penthouse suite. However, when Greg shows uncertainty about Kendall’s rash decisions, he is tossed to the side by Kendall and nearly becomes a scapegoat for the company’s crimes. Kendall’s erratic behavior and his inability to maintain stable, healthy relationships reflect the inner emotional instability characteristic of BPD (APA, 2022), leaving him isolated and emotionally unfulfilled.

Emotional Fluctuations

Kendall’s emotional fluctuations and ever-shifting sense of self are strong indicators of BPD. Kendall alternates between periods of feeling untouchable, epitomized by extravagant displays and an aura of pure confidence, to moments of crushing insecurity and worthlessness, even going as far as attempting suicide. To build on this volatility, Kendall’s identity and outward display frequently shifts between being the dutiful son, cutthroat businessman, dejected has-been, and even self-proclaimed moral authority. Shifts between these identities are usually influenced by the people around him, illustrating Kendall’s lack of control over his sense of self. Kendall is subject to intense emotional reactions and mood shifts ranging from robotic like affect and intense depression to childlike tantrums and bouts of rage. After a failed takeover attempt of Waystar RoyCo, Kendall spends much of Season 2 as his father’s obedient, submissive pet; the season finale culminates in Kendall betraying his father after his father attempts to make him the scapegoat for company crimes. After Kendall betrays his father, his character shifts to being an energetic, thousand-mile-an-hour cultural revolutionary. These swings in self-confidence are a looking glass into the maelstrom that is Kendall’s sense of self. Characteristic of someone with BPD, Kendall’s goals and aspirations tend to take dramatic turns. In the beginning of Season 4, Kendall is intent on having Waystar RoyCo bought by the company GoJo so that he and his siblings may finally be rid of their father’s soul-sucking company. Just before sealing the deal, though, Kendall decides he wants to take over the company along with his siblings and not sell, even though they have decided on future business plans outside Waystar RoyCo. Kendall’s profound emotional instability, fluctuating identity, and constant shifts in opinions and goals are all tell-tale signs of BPD.

Substance Use Disorders

Substance use disorders are also commonly associated with BPD; studies of lifetime rates of substance use disorders among participants with BPD showed an average prevalence of 63.5% (Sansone & Sansone, 2011). Throughout the show, Kendall undergoes periods of sobriety followed by intense and reckless drug use. At one point, Kendall throws away a period of sobriety and, in his own words, “[is] interested in becoming a meth head” (Armstrong et al., Season 1, Episode 6). Kendall also does copious amounts of cocaine, being indifferent to the fact that “[his] heart’s gonna explode” (Armstrong et al., Season 1, Episode 8). Throughout the show, Kendall does marijuana, excessive amounts of alcohol, ketamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine.

Family Dynamics: The Role of Nature vs. Nurture

The Roys’ family dynamics are one of the most important facets of the show. The parenting styles utilized by Logan Roy and the siblings’ estranged mother, Catherine, are almost guaranteed to contribute to some form of psychopathology in their children. Logan Roy made it a point to not function as a traditional father to his children, and when asked to tell a heart-warming memory of their dad for an interview, none of the siblings were able to answer (Armstrong et al., Season 3, Episode 3). Multiple times throughout the show, Logan strikes one of the children, and it is implied that this abuse was prevalent in childhood as well, adding physical abuse into the already pervasive emotional abuse. When his children plead for him to not sell off the company they have sacrificed so much for, Logan asks what they have to offer him; when the response is “love,” Logan retorts disdainfully, “[y]ou come for me with love!?” (Armstrong et al., Season 3, Episode 9). Logan Roy’s parenting philosophy can best be summarized by his quote that life is “a fight for a knife in the mud” and that is exactly why he pits himself and his children against one another (Season 3, Episode 8). The persistent invalidation that Logan offers his kids, and the lack of true fatherhood contribute to the disorders displayed by the siblings, particularly Kendall. Catherine is also wholly emotionally unavailable; when Kendall is facing a breakdown over the accidental death he was involved in, he pleads with his mother to be able to confide in her. She responds by postponing it to the next morning and intentionally avoiding Kendall, leaving him to wallow in despair (Armstrong et al., Season 2, Episode 7). Entire articles could be dedicated to the frequent displays of psychological, physical, and emotional abuse inflicted on the Roy siblings; these displays are characteristic of maladaptive parenting, a precursor to BPD with “84% of people with BPD retrospectively describing experiences of bi-parental neglect and emotional abuse before the age of 18” (Zanarini et al., 2002).

The dysfunction Kendall inherits is reflected in his own parenting style. Kendall’s parenting of his own two kids is shown as distant and intermittent. Though he never displays any abuse of his children, Kendall is simply not present for much of their lives—something that his siblings often poke fun at him for—and his moments of genuine connection with them are brief and rare. This coincides with findings that “parents with [a] personality disorder may also struggle with… engaging in parenting skills” (Steele et al., 2019). Kendall’s substance abuse and the impulsivity associated with it, compounded by the neglect and emotional abuse he suffered from both of his parents, provides further evidence of his underlying psychological turmoil consistent with BPD.

Conclusion

To conclude, Kendall Roy’s intense emotional instability, impulsiveness, substance abuse, and shattered sense of self closely align with the diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder, which is further exacerbated by the caustic, neglectful parenting he and his siblings endured. His struggles are a powerful depiction of how early trauma coupled with maladaptive family dynamics can be instrumental in the development of borderline personality disorder shown by his path of self-destruction and emotional pandemonium throughout Succession.

References

American Psychological Association. (2022). Personality disorders. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5(5). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.x18_personality_disorders

Armstrong, J., Ferrell, W., McKaw, A., Rich, F., Messick, K., Mylod, M., Tranter, J., Pritchett, G., Roche T., Ferguson, S., Brown, J., Prebble, L., & Tracy, W. (Executive Producers). (2018–2023). Succession [TV series]. HBO Entertainment; Gary Sanchez Productions; Hyperobject Industries; Hot Seat Productions; Project Zeus.

Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2011). Substance use disorders and borderline personality: Common bedfellows. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(9), 10. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3196330/

Steele, K. R., Townsend, M. L., & Grenyer, B. F. S. (2019). Parenting and personality disorder: An overview and meta-synthesis of systematic reviews. PLOS ONE, 14(10), e0223038. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223038

Story, G. W., Smith, R., Moutoussis, M., Berwian, I. M., Nolte, T., Bilek, E., Siegel, J. Z., & Dolan, R. J. (2023). A social inference model of idealization and devaluation. Psychological Review, 131(3). https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000430

Zanarini, M. C., Yong, L., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., Marino, M. F., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2002). Severity of reported childhood sexual abuse and its relationship to severity of borderline psychopathology and psychosocial impairment among borderline inpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(6), 381. https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/fulltext/2002/06000/
severity_of_reported_childhood_sexual_abuse_and.6.aspx

Jack McGuire is currently a sophomore at Tulane University studying neuroscience and psychology. He hopes to attend medical school upon graduating. In his free time, he enjoys fishing, playing with his cats, and listening to Radiohead. Follow Jack on LinkedIn.

Disclaimer: The Greatest Showman is a dramatized account of the life of an imperfect man. Regardless of how we feel about Barnum’s treatment of the people in his circus, he was undoubtedly a great showman and a fascinating, if flawed, human. The goal of this article is to explore psychological themes in the hit musical, not to analyze the man himself or to provide a historical critique.

“Come alive, come alive / Go and light your light, let it burn so bright / Reachin' up to the sky / And it's open wide, you're electrified” – Come Alive

Set in 19th century New York, The Greatest Showman (Gracey, 2017) follows the journey of Phineas Taylor (PT) Barnum, a poor but ambitious man who rises from humble beginnings to become a showman and entrepreneur. Driven by a desire to prove himself and secure a better life for his family, Barnum opens a museum of curiosities that eventually becomes the famous circus still around today. Along the way, he recruits an array of extraordinary performers, many of whom are considered outcasts by society due to their physical differences, including a bearded lady, a man with dwarfism, and a heavily tattooed man. The show explores Barnum's relationships with these performers (including his protégé Phillip Carlisle), his family, and his struggle to balance his pursuit of success with the need to stay true to his roots. Barnum's ambition causes tension with his wife, Charity, and his dream eventually leads to personal and professional setbacks. However, in the end, the performers come together, emphasizing themes of self-acceptance, resilience, and finding one’s true purpose. At its core, The Greatest Showman is a story of resilience, belonging, and the power of being true to oneself.

Belongingness and Acceptance

“I'm not scared to be seen/ I make no apologies, this is me” – This is Me

The need to belong theory (Baumeister & Leary, 1965) suggests that humans have an inherent psychological need to form and maintain close, meaningful relationships. This need for social connection is fundamental to emotional well-being, influencing behavior, cognition, and overall mental health. When this need is unmet—through social exclusion, rejection, or isolation—individuals may experience negative psychological outcomes, such as anxiety, depression, and reduced self-esteem. Conversely, fulfilling the need to belong enhances feelings of acceptance, security, and self-worth, emphasizing the crucial role of social bonds in the human experience (Allen et al., 2022).

In The Greatest Showman, the need to belong theory is illustrated through the experiences of Barnum’s circus performers. Many of the circus members—such as Letty (the bearded lady), Charles (the man with dwarfism), and Captain Constentenous (the tattooed man)—face social exclusion and stigmatization due to their differences, but ultimately find a sense of family and support within the circus troupe. Their deep-seated desire for acceptance and belonging drives them to form a close-knit community within the circus, where they find validation and emotional support. This sense of belonging enhances their self-esteem and empowers them to embrace their identities, as depicted in the song “This Is Me” (Gracey, 2017). The film demonstrates how fulfilling the need to belong can help to foster resilience and self-acceptance, highlighting the transformative power of social connection.

We can also consider belongingness and acceptance through Carl Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: a psychological theory that posits human motivation is driven by the fulfillment of five levels of needs, often represented as a pyramid (Maslow, 1943). The base of the pyramid includes physiological needs (e.g., food, water, and shelter) followed by safety needs (e.g., security and stability). Once these lower-level needs are met, individuals can seek belongingness (e.g., relationships and social connections) and esteem needs (e.g., self-esteem and recognition from others). Finally, the top of the pyramid is self-actualization, the realization of one’s full potential and personal growth. According to Maslow, individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before they can focus on higher-level needs (Maslow, 1943; McLeod, 2024).

The performers, initially rejected by society, begin by fulfilling their basic physiological and safety needs through employment and shelter within the circus. As they form a supportive community, they move up the hierarchy, experiencing belongingness and love by finding acceptance and connection with one another. This sense of belonging empowers them to reach for esteem needs, as they gain confidence and pride in their unique identities and ultimately begin to accept themselves. Throughout the story, we can see how the fulfillment of lower-level needs creates the foundation for self-actualization, with characters eventually gaining the ability to embrace their authentic selves and pursuing their dreams.

Motivation

“'Cause every night I lie in bed / The brightest colors fill my head / A million dreams are keeping me awake” – A Million Dreams

Throughout the show, ambition and motivation are central themes that drive the characters' actions and personal growth. The song “A Million Dreams” depicts P.T. Barnum’s early years, first with his father and then living on the streets in poverty after his father’s untimely death. But the song also explores Barnum’s deep desire to achieve success and prove his worth in a world that shuns those who are different. His ambition pushes him to dream beyond societal expectations, highlighting the importance of motivation which is defined as “a person’s willingness to exert physical or mental effort in pursuit of a goal or outcome” (APA, 2018).

There are two overarching forms of motivation: extrinsic (deriving from external forces) and intrinsic (arising from within). For example, one can run a race to win a trophy (extrinsic) or for the pleasure of stretching muscles and challenging the body (intrinsic; Cherry, 2023). And they are not mutually exclusive—behaviors are often multiply motivated. For example, Barnum is intrinsically motivated by the opportunity to gain self-acceptance, while also being extrinsically motivated by the fame, recognition, and financial rewards the circus brings. Overall, The Greatest Showman illustrates how both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations influence ambition and drive individuals to pursue their dreams, ultimately shaping their personal growth and identity.

Class Disparities

“It's up to you / And it's up to me / No one can say what we get to be / And why don't we rewrite the stars? / Changing the world to be ours” – Rewrite the Stars

Another psychological concept in The Greatest Showman is the stark reality of class disparities. Social class can be defined as “a social context that individuals inhabit in enduring and pervasive ways over time” (Kraus et al., 2012, p. 547), and encompasses factors like wealth and status. Understanding class differences is important, as they are often linked with psychological well-being. For example, perceived social class discrimination is associated with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety among individuals from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds (Wu et al., 2022). Additionally, different types of classism uniquely predict psychological outcomes, such as stress and well-being, beyond the effects of social status alone (Cavalhieri, 2023).

The Greatest Showman has several examples of class disparities, starting with Barnum’s own journey from poverty to wealth. As a child, Barnum faces humiliation due to his low social status, witnessing his father’s mistreatment by wealthy clients. His longing for social acceptance and security motivates his ambition to rise above his circumstances (Gracey, 2017). This class divide is further emphasized through his relationship with his wife, Charity, who comes from an affluent family. Although Charity fully understands what she is getting into when she agrees to marry Barnum, her parents disapprove of Barnum’s humble background. Even after achieving financial success, Barnum struggles to gain acceptance from high society, as seen in his pursuit of respectability through his partnership with opera singer Jenny Lind. These experiences highlight the rigid social hierarchies of the time, emphasizing how wealth and status often dictate power and acceptance.

Another example is the relationship between Philip Carlyle and Anne Wheeler. Philip, a wealthy playwright, falls in love with Anne, a trapeze artist from a lower social class. Despite their strong emotional connection, societal prejudices create significant obstacles. In one scene, Philip hesitates to hold Anne’s hand in public, fearing judgment from his peers (Gracey, 2017). This moment captures the internal conflict he faces between his privileged upbringing and his feelings for Anne. Meanwhile, Anne is painfully aware of the social discrimination they face, leading her to guard her heart against potential rejection. The song “Rewrite the Stars” beautifully captures the juxtaposition between his privileged naivete and Anne’s stark understanding of how the world can be. Their love story highlights the rigid social hierarchies of 19th-century America, emphasizing how class disparities can have such a strong influence on social acceptance and personal identity.

Conclusion

“Let this promise in me start / Like an anthem in my heart / From now on” – From Now On

In summary, The Greatest Showman presents a compelling exploration of psychological themes, particularly belongingness and acceptance, motivation, and class disparities. Through the journey of P.T. Barnum and his performers, the show highlights the universal human need for connection and validation, showcasing how individuals seek acceptance in the face of societal rejection. Barnum’s relentless ambition reflects the complexities of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, illustrating both the power and pitfalls of an unyielding drive for success. Additionally, the film sheds light on class disparities, emphasizing the struggles of those marginalized by society and the barriers they must overcome to find recognition and respect. Ultimately, The Greatest Showman resonates as a story of resilience, emphasizing that true fulfillment comes not from wealth or status, but from embracing one’s identity and fostering genuine human connections.

References

Allen, K. A., Gray, D. L., Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (2022). The need to belong: A deep dive into the origins, implications, and future of a foundational construct. Educational Psychology Review, 34(2), 1133–1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09633-6

American Psychological Association. (2018, April). Motivation. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/motivation

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Cavalhieri, K. E., Willyard, A., & Phillippi, J. C. (2023). The effects of different types of classism on psychological outcomes: Preliminary findings. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 45(3), 422–440.

Cherry, K. (2023, Dec. 13). Intrinsic motivation vs. extrinsic motivation: What's the difference? VeryWell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation-2795384

Gracey, M. (Director). (2017). The Greatest Showman [Film]. TSG Entertainment, Laurence Mark Productions, Chernin Entertainment.

Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., Mendoza-Denton, R., Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Keltner, D. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychological Review, 119(3), 546–572.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McLeod, S. (2024). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Wu, J., Li, Q., Wu, Q., & Li, Q. (2022). Social class-based discrimination and psychological symptoms among socioeconomically disadvantaged college students: The moderated mediation role of stress mindset and rumination. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 1–9.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Have you ever played so much Tetris that you start seeing falling blocks when you close your eyes? Maybe you notice boxes on a shelf that look like they could be stacked in just the right way to score points. If so, congratulations! You have experienced the Tetris Effect. Named after the 1985 classic puzzle game by Alexey Pajitnov, this phenomenon describes how repetitive activities shape our thoughts, perceptions, and even dreams. So, what is happening in your brain when you cannot seem to stop stacking imaginary blocks? Let’s find out…

What Is the Tetris Effect?

The Tetris Effect happens when prolonged exposure to a repetitive task causes it to infiltrate subconscious thought, manifesting into hypnagogic imagery (visions before sleep), dreams, or altered real-world perception. The term started gaining popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, after early Tetris players reported seeing falling blocks, even when they were no longer playing the game (Stickgold et al., 2000). Now, the effect is not exclusive to Tetris, as similar events happen in other activities—musicians “hearing” notes after long practices, or chess players visualizing boards in their dreams. Our brains are really just continuing a familiar task even when we are no longer consciously engaged in it.

The Neuroscience Behind It

The brain is constantly seeking patterns, rewiring itself in response to frequent stimuli. The Tetris Effect is a product of neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to strengthen neural pathways when exposed to a repeated task. Research by Stickgold et al. (2000) found that Tetris beginners who played extensively began dreaming about the game despite whether or not they recalled playing long. This suggests that the brain processes repetitive stimuli at a subconscious level, reinforcing learning even outside of wakefulness.

Beyond that, functional MRI (fMRI) studies show that playing Tetris engages multiple brain areas, including: (a) the visual cortex, responsible for processing shapes and movement; (b) the prefrontal cortex, which handles problem solving and decision making; and (c) the hippocampus, which works with spatial memory and learning. Long-term Tetris exposure has even been linked to increased cortical thickness in regions that are associated with spatial reasoning (Haier et al., 2009). Essentially, our brains become better at recognizing and predicting patterns; a helpful skill even outside the game!

Real-World Applications

While seeing phantom Tetris blocks might sound like a pointless quirk, the Tetris Effect has a few practical implications: memory consolidation and learning, therapeutic uses, breaking bad habits, and creativity.

Memory consolidation and learning: The Tetris Effect highlights how repetition strengthens memory, with many researchers and educators leveraging spaced repetition—breaking study sessions into smaller chunks—to reinforce learning similarly to how Tetris players reinforce spatial awareness. Because the brain continues processing learning material even after stopping a task, some students may benefit from engaging in either visual or pattern-based study methods to enhance retention. Additionally, certain professions, such as medical surgery, require intense visual-spatial processing. The Tetris Effect demonstrates how repetitive exposure to these tasks can lead to cognitive improvements in performance over time.

Therapeutic uses: Tetris has been shown to reduce posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) flashbacks. A study by Holmes et al. (2009) found that playing Tetris shortly after a traumatic event could disrupt intrusive visual memories. This is done by occupying the brain’s visual processing resources. By engaging with a highly stimulating visual task, individuals may be able to limit the brain’s ability to replay traumatic images, thus reducing emotional impact. Even outside of PTSD, Tetris still may be able to help mental health, as researchers are investigating how visually engaging games can help with anxiety or intrusive thoughts. The repetitive, structured nature of puzzle games like Tetris may provide an “anchor” to help people shift focus away from negative or distressing thoughts.

Breaking bad habits: The Tetris Effect can also work in reverse. For example, a study by Skorka-Brown et al. (2014) found that playing Tetris resulted in reduced cravings for food, drugs, and other compulsive behaviors by providing a distracting visual task, which demonstrates how cognitive engagement can influence habits. When someone feels a craving coming on, engaging in a highly structured, absorbing activity could serve as a tool for redirecting attention and reducing impulse-driven behavior.

Creativity: Interestingly enough, the Tetris Effect may also play a role in enhancing creative thinking. When the brain is conditioned to recognize patterns and optimize spatial arrangements, these skills can then extend to broader problem-solving scenarios. Artists, designers, and engineers often rely on visual-spatial reasoning to create effective and innovative solutions. Some studies even suggest that engaging in pattern-based games can increase cognitive flexibility, allowing individuals to approach challenges from multiple angles.

Conclusion

Whether you are stacking blocks in Tetris or replaying real-life scenarios in your mind, the Tetris Effect is a fascinating example of how our brains adapt to repeated stimuli. Although it might just seem like a quirky side effect of gaming, it highlights how experience shapes perception, memory, and even problem-solving abilities.

From improving memory and breaking bad habits to reducing trauma symptoms and improving creativity, this phenomenon demonstrates the brain’s incredible adaptability. So, the next time you catch yourself mentally rotating furniture to fit better in a room, just remember: your brain is simply stacking up thoughts!

References

Haier, R. J., Karama, S., Leyba, L. & Jung, R. E. (2009). MRI assessment of cortical thickness and functional activity changes in adolescent girls following three months of practice on a visual-spatial task. BMC Res Notes, 2, 174. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-2-174

Holmes, E. A., James, E. L., Coode-Bate, T., & Deeprose, C. (2009). Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science. PLoS ONE, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004153

Skorka-Brown, J., Andrade, J., & May, J. (2014). Playing 'Tetris' reduces the strength, frequency and vividness of naturally occurring cravings. Appetite, 76, 161–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.01.073

Stickgold, R., Malia, A., Maguire, D., Roddenberry, D., & O'Connor, M. (2000). Replaying the game: Hypnagogic images in normals and amnesics. Science, 290(5490), 350–353. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.290.5490.350

Kate Wilson is a psychology student passionate about cognitive science, human-centered design, and improving everyday experiences through psychology. Her academic interests center on human factors engineering, and accessibility. Outside of school, Kate volunteers with Crisis Text Line, cooks, and plays games (when given time). In the future, she hopes to combine creativity and research to design technology that truly puts people first. Follow her on Instagram.

The Bean Soup Incident

In August of 2023, a woman by username @vibinggranolamom posted a vegan bean soup recipe on a popular social media platform, TikTok. This recipe, as stated, was targeted for women with anemia but was also said to be helpful with cramps and iron production while a woman is menstruating, or even as a regular rotational meal to ensure healthy iron levels. Despite these statements, many commenters would post stating that the recipe was not up to their standards for a plethora of reasons, including but not limited to: disliking beans, not following a vegan lifestyle, not being anemic, and asking for substitutions for ingredients included in the recipe. This instance led to another TikToker, @sarahthebookfairy, creating her own post discussing this as an example for what she called the “what about me” effect (Miller, 2023).

As described by @sarahthebookfairy, the “what about me” effect is what happens when people see a video or topic online that doesn’t directly pertain to them, but still find a way to make it all about them. This video post created a snowball effect where multiple content creators on multiple platforms began to discuss this phenomenon. While this phenomenon has also been called other names such as “main character effect,” “center stage syndrome,” and even jokingly “bean soupification,” it actually has a technical term, context collapse.

What is Context Collapse?

The term context collapse was first used in print in 2008 among researchers danah boyd (who is credited with coining the term), Michael Wesch (who used it in a 2008 lecture), and Alice Marwick, and is defined as “the flattening of multiple audiences into a single context” (boyd & Zephoria, 2013; Brandtzaeg & Lüders, 2018). This occurs when a piece of information (e.g., a video, post, or article) is intended for one audience but shared in a space with multiple audiences like on Facebook or TikTok. The unintended audiences react negatively or critically to the information that was not intended for them because they failed to understand the information’s original context.

Context collapse has roots as far back as 1956 with Erving Goffman’s book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life with the mention of audience segregation, where a person may behave differently in different groups based on their role within each group (Goffman, 1956). This concept was then applied to television and radio for the first time in Joshua Meyrowitz’s book No Sense of Place, which examined how modern media (at the time) broke down barriers that would previously keep people in separate social groups and broadcasted multiple streams of information to these groups regardless of who the information was “made for,” thus creating new, more generalized social situations (Meyrowitz, 1985).

How Does Context Collapse Happen?

Context collapse can occur in real-world situations, but is noted to occur far more commonly online because the virtual world tends to mesh different specified audiences into one space. For example, Facebook has users from all over the world on their platform, and while there are specific private and public pages for users (e.g., Dem Thrones Y’all, a fan page for the popular television show Game of Thrones) many of these people and all their different perspectives and understandings still communicate publicly and privately on Facebook. While face-to-face encounters can allow people to rely on body language and give the ability to “read a room” and gauge their interactions accordingly, online platforms tend to have an understanding of some level of anonymity and identity shielding, which prevents many people from noticing or caring about the nuances in their audiences. This shielding also works in the opposite direction, where a responder can comment in ways they would never comment in a face-to-face interaction (Australian Government, 2024).

The prevalence of filter bubbles in social media use contributes heavily to the prevalence of context collapse. A filter bubble, or ideological frame, is defined as a state of intellectual isolation and social fragmentation brought on by recommendation systems, algorithm curations, and personalized online searches (Pariser, 2011). Two common examples of this are Facebook's personalized news stream introduced in 2006 and the Google Personalized Search introduced in 2009. Filter bubbles are formed when one’s search history tailors what is presented to the user to increase the likelihood of engaging in the social media platform. For example, someone who shares and posts on Facebook often about animals will soon find themselves seeing more posts and videos about animals, which will keep them engaging in using Facebook and increase the likelihood of using Facebook more often. This concept works for all types of interests and with other recommended users; the more specific type of content is viewed and shared, the more often it will be seen, and the stronger the filter bubble becomes.

Another potential contributor to context collapse—particularly among American users—is the individualistic culture in which users are raised. While individualism in and of itself isn’t necessarily a bad thing, hyper-individualism can have devastating long-term effects. Hyper-individualism is when an individual excessively prioritizes their own needs and desires without regard to how it may affect others, and is often a gateway into narcissistic behavior (Clausen, 2021; Weinburg, 2023). This hyper-individualism combined with algorithm-made filter bubbles in the semi-anonymous spaces of social media forums is essentially what leads to complex collapse.

Tips to Avoid Context Collapse

An important thing to remember regarding context collapse is that everything in this world and online is not made for everyone to enjoy, or find inclusion in. Context collapse is, in a sense, the inability to remember this fact. Some tips to prevent oneself from falling into the context collapse trap are to understand that not everything one reads will be from a shared perspective with the author. As an author, it also helps to identify your audience before writing and posting information, as well as checking the facts behind a post rather than blindly sharing another’s post. Avoiding making generalizing statements and using clear language can help as well. As always, consider how other people may perceive what you have to say and be open to comments and feedback asking for clarification. On the receiving end of context collapse, never be afraid to ask for clarification if needed. Furthermore, there is always the option to say “If it doesn’t apply, let it fly” and scroll on without engaging in what can be assumed to be an agree to disagree situation.

References

Australian Government. (2024, July 2). Anonymity and identity shielding. eSafety Commissioner. https://www.esafety.gov.au/industry/tech-trends-and-challenges/anonymity

boyd & Zephoria. (2013, December 8). Danah Boyd: Apophenia. danah boyd apophenia. https://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2013/12/08/coining-context-collapse.html

Brandtzaeg, P. B., & Lüders, M. (2018). Time collapse in social media: Extending the context collapse. Social Media + Society, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118763349

Clausen, D. M. (2021, June 22). Is hyper-individualism undermining the social contract?. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/small-town-usa/202106/is-hyper-individualism-undermining-the-social-contract

Goffman, E. (1956). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.

Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior. Oxford University Press.

Miller, B. (2023, September 26). Viral bean soup recipe prompted the internet to break down “what about me” effect. The Independent US Edition. https://www.the-independent.com/life-style/tiktok-what-about-me-effect-soup-b2419028.html

Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: How the new personalized web is changing what we read and how we think. Penguin Books.

Weinburg, B. (2023, June 9). The case against hyper-individualism. The Life and Times of Ben Weinberg. https://benjweinberg.com/2023/06/02/the-case-against-hyper-individualism/

Kaitlyn L. Nasworthy is a magna cum laude Georgia Southern University alumni with a background in social and religious psychology, behaviorism, and sociology studies. Kaitlyn currently works as a public safety dispatcher at her alma mater and is a current student in their Evaluation, Assessment, Research, and Learning (EARL) MEd program. When not at work, Kaitlyn enjoys weightlifting and powerbuilding, reading, writing, and spending quality time with her husband, Kyle, and dog, Abby.

“The sun'll come out / Tomorrow / Bet your bottom dollar / That tomorrow / There'll be sun!” - Tomorrow

Annie is a beloved musical that premiered on Broadway in 1977, captivating audiences with its heartwarming story and memorable songs. The show is based on the 1924 comic strip "Little Orphan Annie" by Harold Gray, which itself was inspired by the 1885 poem "Little Orphan Annie" by James Whitcomb Riley. The original Broadway production was a massive success, running for nearly six years and winning seven Tony Awards, including Best Musical. Its enduring popularity has led to numerous revivals, tours, and four film adaptations: 1982, 1999, 2014, and a live on TV Musical in 2021 (this article will focus on the 1982 film).

Set in New York during the Great Depression, Annie follows the journey of a spirited young red-headed orphan as she searches for her biological parents and ultimately finds a new family with billionaire Oliver Warbucks. Although the show is upbeat and has a happy ending, it tackles several dark topics. Annie’s time at the orphanage is marked by poverty, neglect, and outright abuse, at the hands of the drunken owner of the orphanage, Miss Hannigan. And yet, Annie is a remarkably resilient and precocious child, always looking on the bright side and never staying down for long.

Resilience

“So maybe now it's time / And maybe when I wake / They'll be there calling me baby / Maybe” - Maybe

Unlike the other children she lives with who have no idea about their biological families, Annie was left at the orphanage with a locket and a letter from her parents saying they would come back for her. She clings to this hope with both hands. In fact, Annie displays remarkable resilience throughout the entire show. The American Psychological Association defines resilience as “the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, especially through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and adjustment to external and internal demands.” Resilience is a central theme that often defines Annie's character as she navigates life’s hardships with unwavering hope and determination. Despite growing up in the grim environment of Miss Hannigan's orphanage, Annie maintains an optimistic outlook, exemplified when she sings "Maybe," dreaming of the day her parents will return for her. Her resilience is further demonstrated when she bravely escapes the orphanage toward the beginning of the movie, cleverly outsmarting Miss Hannigan and navigating the city streets alone. When she is selected to spend a week at the mansion of billionaire Mr. Oliver Warbucks, she approaches this new development with gratitude and curiosity, rather than fear or anxiety. The height of her resilience is revealed when she ultimately learns that her biological parents have passed away—a devastating truth that could have shattered her spirit. Instead, Annie chooses to accept her new reality, embracing Grace and Oliver, or “Daddy Warbucks,” as her family.

But what makes someone resilient? There is a wide body of literature surrounding this concept, with scholars pointing to factors such as having positive relationships, self-image, and attitude (Riopel, 2019). As with many psychological traits, resilience exists on a spectrum and is often dependent on context. For example, someone who displays resilience at school may be less resilient in their interpersonal relationships (Southwick et al., 2014). Interestingly, and somewhat unrealistically, Annie’s resilience seems to extend to all aspects of her life. Although resilience is widely considered to be an adaptive trait, and one which is associated with myriad benefits, there may be a downside too. An excess of resilience may result in persistence even when one should throw in the towel and can even go so far as to become toxic positivity (Moffic, 2022). The moral of the story here is that resilience is beneficial in small, and even large quantities… but there can be too much of a good thing.

Gender Norms

“Some women are dripping with diamonds / Some women are dripping with pearls / Lucky me, lucky me / Look at what I'm dripping with … little girls” – Little Girls

Gender norms are societal expectations and behaviors that dictate how individuals should act, speak, dress, and interact based on their perceived gender (Cislaghi & Heise, 2020). These norms are culturally constructed and can vary across different societies and historical periods. For example, traditional gender norms often suggest that men should be strong, assertive, and unemotional, while women should be nurturing, gentle, and expressive. These expectations influence many aspects of life, including career choices, hobbies, and family roles. Annie was set in 1933 when gender norms and expectations were quite strong and emphasized traditional masculinity and femininity.

There are two prominent adult woman characters in Annie: Grace Farrell, Mr. Warbucks’ personal secretary, and Miss Hannigan, the orphanage manager, who present a fascinating spectrum of femininity. On the one hand, Grace embodies traditional feminine ideals—nurturing, gentle, and elegant—aligning with societal expectations of women as caretakers and moral guides. Her kindness and maternal demeanor position her character as a hero in the story, reinforcing the narrative that women who conform to nurturing roles are virtuous. In contrast, Miss Hannigan defies traditional norms of femininity with her harshness, independence, frequent intoxication, and disdain for motherhood. Furthermore, she is overtly sexual, alluding to having sexual relations with both Mr. Bundles (the laundry man) and Weasel (a police officer), as well as making advances on Mr. Warbucks during the song “Sign.” As an unmarried woman in a position of authority who lacks maternal affection and seeks out sexual attention, she is cast as the villain in an almost cartoonish way, reflecting societal discomfort with women who deviate from traditional gender roles. This dichotomy illustrates how society often celebrates women who embody nurturing and selflessness while vilifying those who reject or challenge these expectations.

Violence & Abuse

“No one cares for you a smidge / When you're in an orphanage / It's the hard-knock life” – It’s the Hard Knock Life

Famously depicted in the song “It’s the Hard Knock Life,” the children of Hudson Street Orphanage are no stranger to cruelty and violence. Miss Hannigan's abusive behavior towards the children ranges from verbal (e.g., yelling, threatening, name calling) to emotional (e.g., forcing them to constantly laud her with “we love you, Miss Hannigan!) to physical (e.g., forcing them to clean, locking them in closets). These behaviors illustrate how power and control are exerted in abusive dynamics. Although we can only speculate about her backstory (now that would be a fascinating spin off story!), her cruelty appears to stem from her own bitterness and unhappiness, suggesting that her abusive tendencies may be a product of her own experiences with hardship and frustration. This cycle of violence is evident as she directs her anger and feelings of powerlessness toward the most vulnerable targets, orphaned children, perpetuating a cycle of mistreatment and fear. While this is horrible and often difficult to watch, it is also not surprising from a psychological perspective: the literature is very clear that hurt people hurt people (Puff, 2021). Miss Hannigan is no exception.

The children, in turn, exhibit behaviors shaped by this hostile environment. They display signs of anxiety, fear of authority, and a lack of trust, indicating the emotional impact of living under constant stress. Unfortunately, child abuse and maltreatment are somewhat common, with the World Health Organization estimating that 6 out of 10 children (approximately 400 million children) under the age of 5 experience regular violence from their parents and/or caregivers. Unlike the children in Annie, who presumably end up living happily ever after under the protection of Daddy Warbucks, the story is not usually so positive. Childhood maltreatment is associated with a host of challenges later in life, such as deviant behaviors (e.g., substance use, risky sex), mental health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety), and further experiences with violence (both as a victim and/or a perpetrator; WHO, 2024).

Conclusion

“I don't need sunshine now / To turn my skies at blue / I don't need anything but you!” – I Don’t Need Anything But You

In conclusion, Annie offers a powerful exploration of psychological themes such as resilience, gender norms, and the impact of adversity on emotional development. Throughout the show, we witness how hope and optimism can act as powerful tools for overcoming hardship, while the contrasting characters of Miss Hannigan and Grace highlight the influence of societal expectations for women, and the overall importance of supportive environments. The film’s portrayal of the cycle of violence, as seen through Miss Hannigan’s abusive behavior, also serves as a stark reminder of the long-lasting effects of trauma and the potential for resilience and healing. Ultimately, Annie provides a hopeful narrative about the human capacity to thrive, regardless of difficult circumstances, and the transformative power of love and community.

References

American Psychological Association (2025). Resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience

Cislaghi, B. & Heise, L. (2020). Gender norms and social norms: Differences, similarities and why they matter in prevention science. Sociology of Health & Illness, 42(2), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13008

Gray, H. (1924). Little Orphan Annie [Comic strip]. Chicago Tribune.

Huston, J. (Director). 1982. Annie [Film]. Rastar.

Moffic. H. S. (November 22, 2022). The benefits and limitations of resilience. Psychiatric Times. https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/the-benefits-and-limitations-of-resilience

Puff, R. (Sept. 13, 2021). Breaking the cycle of hurt. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/meditation-for-modern-life/202109/breaking-the-cycle-of-hurt

Riley, J. W. (1885). Little Orphan Annie. In The Old Swimmin'-Hole and 'Leven More Poems. Bowen-Merrill.

Riopel, L. (Jan. 20, 2019). Resilience examples: What key skills make you resilient?. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/resilience-skills/

Southwick et al. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(25338). https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338

World Health Organization. (Nov. 5, 2024). Child maltreatment. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Inside Out, a Pixar animation movie was released in 2015. At the time, I was 12 years old, roughly the same age as the movie’s protagonist, Riley Andersen. Watching Riley navigating the challenges of moving from Minnesota to San Francisco, adjusting to a new school, and missing the life she left behind, deeply resonated with me. Growing up, I also experienced the shift to new, unfamiliar environments, and Riley’s struggle was one that I was familiar with. Almost 10 years later, watching Pixar’s Inside Out 2, I found myself relating to Riley yet again.

The Story

Inside Out 2 revolves around a major event in Riley’s life: her transition into adolescence. With the arrival of puberty (literally “announced” by Riley’s emotional dashboard with a blaring red alarm), Riley is confronted with questions of self, identity, and belongingness. Inside Out 2, like Inside Out, focuses on Riley’s emotional experience, providing her emotions with anthropomorphic characters, personality, and individualized behavior, an approach which allows Riley’s emotions to represent different aspects of her developing self. While Inside Out portrays five emotions only: Joy, Sadness, Fear, Anger, and Disgust, Inside Out 2 expands Riley’s emotional repertoire by bringing Anxiety, Ennui (boredom), Envy, Embarrassment, and Nostalgia on board. It is not surprising that Riley’s advancement into adolescence allows room for a wider, more complex set of emotions, nor that the new emotions create new opportunities for conflict and resolution. Across both movies, Riley’s emotions must learn to collaborate with one another to help Riley adjust and develop in a healthy fashion. The analogy is to Riley herself, who must learn to recognize, acknowledge, and cope with each emotion, allowing them all to become an integral part of her.

Adolescence and Erick Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Watching Inside Out 2, I was reminded of my own adolescent phase. What an awkward, self-conscious, and confusing period it was! Riley’s transition into a teenager embodies many of the key concepts described in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. The theory depicts eight stages of development, each marked with a specific “crisis,” a conflict between the person’s psychological needs and the demands of the social environment. In accordance, each stage offers an opportunity to reach a positive resolution, or in case the crisis is not solved, dwell into confusion, stagnation, isolation, etc. (Schacter et al., 2023, p. 425–427).

Inside Out 2 aligns with Erikson’s fifth stage of Identity versus Role Confusion. According to Erikson, during this developmental stage, adolescents are charged with the development of a sense of self in relationship to others and to their own internal thoughts and desires. Adolescents’ identities are influenced by their internal and external expectations, parents, friends, and others in their society, and during this stage, acceptance by peers is tremendously important. In the movie, Riley starts modifying her behavior and interests to align with those of her new hockey team, denying that she did not like a band called “Get Up and Glow,” despite recently seeing them in concert with her close friends. Furthermore, adolescence often involves a change in emphasis from family relations to peer relationships. To symbolize this change, in Inside Out 2 Joy talks about Riley’s Islands of Personality, pointing to the fact that, as the Family Island got smaller, Friend Island got larger. Riley’s exploration of her group belongingness, and her attempt to fit in while searching for her individual values and staying true to herself, adequately represent this developmental stage. I also find it interesting that a few of Riley’s new emotions are social in nature, thus representing her growing attention to peers and others around her. Embarrassment requires the ability to understand the perception of others in relation to the self (Vani et al., 2020), and envy requires the ability to compare the self to others (Jankowski & Takahashi, 2014).

The Self and Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Theory

Across both movies, Riley’s emotions are in constant battle with one another, and the addition of new emotions in Inside Out 2 only intensifies the conflict. Although each emotion tries, in its own way, to advance and protect Riley, they often end up trying to suppress one another, rather than working in harmony. When each emotion strives to gain sole control of Riley’s actions, they also influence her sense of self. This is perhaps best exemplified by the arrival of Anxiety, who places Joy, Sadness, Fear, Anger, and Disgust into a jar to keep them from interfering in what she sees as the best path forward for Riley. In Inside Out 2, Anxiety witnesses Joy “cleaning up” negative or embarrassing moments out of Riley’s “Memory bank” (discarding them in the “Memory Dump”), and together with Embarrassment, Anxiety overshadows Riley’s Goofball Island, thus creating a sense of shame regarding Riley’s past self. Anxiety also tries to prepare Riley for difficult scenarios by initiating the troubling “What If” thought, “I am not good enough” perceptions and by retrieving negative memories.

These scenarios may reflect some of the themes depicted in Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory. Central to Rogers’ theory is the idea that personality is shaped by the person’s ability to balance their real self and their ideal self (or who they would like to be; Ismail & Tekke, 2015). The conflict between Riley’s emotions, and especially the attempt to “edit” her memories and self-perceptions, reflects Riley’s struggle to establish congruence between her ideal and actual self. By seeking perfection, Joy downgrades crucial experiences, unintentionally hindering Riley’s ability to acquire a realistic view of herself. By preparing Riley for the “worst,” Anxiety literally paralyzes her with worry. Although both movies end when the emotions learn to work together and harness each others’ strengths for Riley’s benefit, Riley (like most teens) still has some work to do regarding her personal development. Hopefully, she will learn to align her emotions (or selves) and promote positive self-image and self-worth. The path to this accomplishment requires the consideration that many of our life’s experiences are made of conjoined emotional experience, rather than a single emotion. For me, for instance, the move to college was exciting and scary at the same time. Perhaps Pixar can contemplate a way to create dual, or multifaced emotions.

Mental Health

Along with the turbulences of adolescence, and with a brief appearance in Inside Out, Inside Out 2 gives Anxiety a center role in Riley’s emotional experience. Although the emotions that are portrayed in Inside Out (Sadness, Fear, Anger, Disgust, and Joy) can become exaggerated, inappropriate, uncontrollable, and disruptive to Riley’s daily and social functioning (some of the defining characteristics of mental disorders), Riley manages to keep them all in check, and none develops into pathological proportions. Inside Out 2 seems to change the narrative, as anxiety can represent the budding seeds of a potentially evolving psychological disorder. Pixar’s willingness to raise awareness to the topic is a courageous step towards destigmatization of mental disorders.

Although it is estimated that 46.4% of people in the United States suffer from a mental disorder at some point of their lifetime, that 26.2% suffer from at least one mental disorder during a given year, and that comorbidity (the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual) affect 80% of diagnosed individuals (Schacter et al., 2023, p. 550, 588), the topic receives inadequate coverage in our daily lives, education, and in the media. The fear of prejudice, discrimination, labeling, and stereotyping can prevent people from sharing their struggle and contribute to the feeling of isolation. It can also hinder people from seeking help and negatively affect their well-being (Schacter et al., 2023, p. 554).

Pixar’s integration of anxiety into Riley’s developing personality, the portrayal of her struggle, and the emphasis on her efforts to develop coping skills, which help her keep her anxiety (somewhat) at bay, is truly inspiring. Although Anxiety can be a maladaptive emotion, Inside Out 2 portrays it as a potentially protective mechanism, which helps Riley develop self-awareness, resilience, and strategic thinking. Specifically, at the end of the movie, Anxiety works alongside Riley’s other emotions, helping her to build a stronger sense of self.

Inside Out 3?

To summarize, I truly enjoyed Inside Out 2 and its many insights, which can be relevant to various psychological dimensions. At my current developmental stage of young adulthood, I would have loved watching a sequel dealing with the development of love relationships (launching Erikson’s 6th stage of Intimacy vs. Isolation). Exploring emotions such as Love, Hate, Hope, Disappointment, Loneliness, Jealousy (in a romantic context, it can be different than Envy), and maybe even Attraction, could further enrich Riley’s internal world and supplement her personality structure. I would also like to suggest Riley’s transition into college as the setting for the sequel. Just imagine how Anxiety and Fear would react to college loans! As a college student, I can envision additional emotions, which could be relevant to this phase: Independence, Responsibility, Doubt, Regret, and maybe even Exhaustion (with a slight Caffeine Addiction, if it can be created into an emotion!). BEcause some of these emotions have the potential to turn maladaptive (e.g., obsession, depression), and since I can see the potential for Riley’s anxiety developing into a full-blown anxiety disorder, I would like to see her finding a way to share her experience with her friends, parents, and maybe even a psychotherapist. Wherever it may take us, the viewers, one thing has become clear: the Inside Out series has given us an insight into the mind, reminding us that all emotions have a purpose in shaping who we are as individuals. I am excited to see what the future holds for Riley—Joy may need an extra shot of espresso for this one!

References

Ismail, N., & Tekke, M. (2015). Rediscovering Rogers’s Self Theory and Personality. Journal of Educational Health and Community Psychology, 4(3), 28–36.

Jankowski, K. F., & Takahashi, H. (2014). Cognitive neuroscience of social emotions and implications for psychopathology: Examining embarrassment, guilt, envy, and schadenfreude. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 68(5), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12182

Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Nock, M. K. (2023). Psychology (6th Edition). Macmillan Learning.

Vani, M. F., Pila, E., Willson, E., & Sabiston, C. M. (2020). Body-related embarrassment: The overlooked self-conscious emotion. Body Image, 32, 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.10.007

Courtney Nave is a fifth-year student at Saint Francis University with a double major in psychology and biology and minors in fine arts and animal assisted health and education. Although her primary focus is a doctor of veterinary medicine, she believes that the field of psychology has allowed her to gain important insight into the behaviors, emotions, and mental health of both animals and their owners. Courtney plans to leverage her psychological education toward the interpretation of animals’ behavioral cues, the diagnosis of their conditions, and the enhancement of the human-animal bond, promoting overall well-being via her future career as a veterinarian.

Dr. Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg is an associate professor of psychology at Saint Francis University, where she also serves as the coordinator of the animal-assisted health and education minor and as a cocoordinator of the interdisciplinary neuroscience minor. Her research interests include the neurobiological mechanisms underlying mood and anxiety disorders, the mutually beneficial effects of the human-animal bond, and the impact of training on the adoption outcomes of shelter animals. She enjoys hiking and spending time with animals. Email her at sfgrinberg@francis.edu

Introduction

In the popular Netflix series Stranger Things (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025), the main character, Eleven, undergoes significant personal growth as she navigates the challenges of adolescence. Set in the 1980s, the show follows the strange and supernatural events that begin to unfold in the small town of Hawkins, Indiana. One night, 12-year-old Will Byers mysteriously disappears into a parallel dimension called the Upside Down, a dark and dangerous world lurking beneath their own world. Will’s disappearance triggers a series of events, including the arrival of Eleven, a teenage girl with telekinetic abilities who escaped from a secret government lab. Eleven quickly becomes entangled with a group of local kids who are searching for Will and becomes the key to uncovering the truth about his disappearance. Raised in isolation and then later taken under the wing of Jim Hopper (the Hawkins police chief), Eleven's experiences mirror key psychological concepts related to adolescent development. Throughout this article, we will explore her developmental journey through identity formation, social relationships, and the many changes that come with growing up

Adolescence

Adolescence (ages 12–18) is a period marked by strong emotions, where feelings of loneliness, frustration, and confusion often reach their highest point (Weiten, 2018). Eleven’s emotional outbursts, particularly when she feels misunderstood or out of control, reflect the intense feelings many teenagers experience. These strong emotions, combined with her struggle to fit in and find her place in the world, complicate her developmental journey. Moreover, the desire for autonomy, or freedom, plays a role in her journey. Eleven frequently pushes back against authority figures as she seeks to make her own choices to assert her independence. One example is her desire for independence. In Season 2, she defies Hopper’s overprotectiveness by sneaking out to find Mike (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025). This act of rebellion mirrors the common teenage desire to assert control over one's life and explore the world beyond parental rules. This quest for self-determination, despite the constraints of her past, is a good example of the universal adolescent struggle to break free from external control and establish a personal sense of agency. Through this lens, her battle is not just supernatural but also deeply human, displaying the core challenges faced by many teens.

Parenting Styles

Another factor that influences adolescents' development is parenting styles. Parenting styles are sets of parental practices that create consistent and recognizable patterns in how children adapt and develop. There are four types of parenting styles, which represent the intersection of high and low warmth and control: authoritarian (low warmth, high control), authoritative (high warmth, high control), permissive (high warmth, low control), and uninvolved (low warmth, low control; Weiten, 2018)

In Stranger Things, Eleven's relationship with her adoptive father, Hopper, can be understood as authoritarian parenting. Authoritarian parents are those with high control and low warmth; consequently, they are characterized as being very strict, punishing, and showing little to no affection (Perry, 2024). In the beginning of the show, Hopper portrays this style by applying strict rules on Eleven's social interactions out of concern for her safety (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025). While his protective nature stems from love, it creates tension, impacting Eleven’s emotional growth and social freedom. Research has shown that children raised with authoritarian parents tend to display higher levels of hyperactivity and emotional difficulties and lower levels of prosocial behaviors compared to those raised with more adaptive parenting styles (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). This parenting style may limit a child's independence but still offers a sense of structure, which can be reassuring for Eleven, who has experienced challenges no child has to face.

Peer Relationships

In addition to parenting, peer relationships also play a significant role in shaping adolescents' identity. Peer relationships are defined as social interactions and connections that adolescents have with their friends and peers who are similar in age or social group (Woods & Hanish, 2021). Initially, Eleven is considered an outsider with no real understanding of social norms or how to fit in. However, this begins to change as she becomes integrated into Mike's friend group. Mike, a kind and loyal boy who is one of her first friends, welcomes her into his circle, helping her find a sense of belonging. Through this, she begins to shift from being a loner to being accepted in a peer group, which also results in her needing to learn how to navigate friendships. The struggle between her desire to be “normal” and her extraordinary abilities continues to affect her relationship with her friends.

As Eleven struggles with these conflicting aspects of her life, she often feels torn between wanting to fit in and recognizing that her powers set her apart in ways she has no control over. To some extent, this reflects the confusing mix of emotions adolescents experience as they navigate the need to separate from their parents while still craving reassurance and connection—a process often marked by the tension between standing out and fitting in (Nissim-Mathesis, 2019). For instance, in Season 2, when her friends are trying to live normal lives, Eleven isolates herself to train her powers and confront her past (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025). This decision highlights the divide between her desire for normalcy and the unique responsibilities her ability imposes on her. This tension is further complicated by the external threats she faces, which force her to have to constantly switch from being a normal teenager to a protector. Her responsibilities and secrets created a barrier between her and those she cares about. In Season 2, Eleven keeps her location a secret from her friends while hiding in Hopper's cabin (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025). Although this is meant to protect herself and her friends, the isolation leads to feelings of loneliness and frustration, staining her relationships—especially Mike, who does not understand why Eleven disappeared.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development says that human development happens in eight stages, with each stage involving a “psychosocial crisis.” During these stages, individuals must balance a positive quality with a negative one, and how they manage these challenges shapes their personality as they grow (Weiten, 2018). The fifth stage of Identity vs. Role confusion occurs during adolescence. In this stage, teenagers start to explore who they are by thinking about their values, beliefs, and future goals (McLeod, 2024). Those who are encouraged to try new things and are allowed to experiment with different roles usually come out of this stage with a clear understanding of self and independence. On the other hand, those who do not get those chances or find the process to be more difficult may struggle with role confusion, feeling uncertain about their identity and having trouble finding their place in life (McLeod, 2024). This struggle for identity is clear in Eleven’s journey as she tries to balance her supernatural powers with her desire to be a “normal” teenager. Although her friends do offer her some stability and acceptance, her responsibilities keep her from fully experiencing a life. This leaves her unsure of her true identity and potential.

Physical and Cognitive Development

Puberty is the time of life when a child experiences physical and hormonal changes that mark the transition into adulthood. Eleven's physical strength and resilience are closely tied to her powers, while the emotional challenges she faces mirror the heightened sensitivity and vulnerability that come with puberty. Developmental scientists have long recognized the role of pubertal timing in adolescent development (Weiten, 2018). More specifically, early or delayed pubertal timing are commonly associated with difficulties with self-esteem, social comparison, and fitting in with peers (Weir, 2016). As adolescents grow at different maturity levels, they often find it hard to connect with their peers. Eleven's situation is unique because her early exposure to trauma and her special abilities put her at odds with typical teenage milestones, making it harder for her to relate.

The changes teenagers experience in their bodies is accompanied by changes in their brains. Many parents usually have a hard time understanding their teenagers' impulsive and irrational behaviors, which come from the different ways teenagers process information compared to adults. A crucial aspect of this difference lies in the way our brains develop, and the specific types of development that occur during the developmental stage of adolescence. The amygdala, responsible for quick emotional reactions like fear and aggression, matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex, the area associated with reasoning and impulse control. This imbalance often leads adolescents to make decisions based more on emotional responses than logical thinking (AACAP, 2017). As Eleven navigates her tumultuous teenage years, these developmental changes become apparent. The adolescent brain also experiences a surge in neural connectivity and myelination, which are vital for coordinated thought and behavior. However, this maturation process can lead to impulsive actions and difficulty interpreting social cues, contributing to risky behaviors and challenges in peer interactions (AACAP, 2017). In Eleven’s case, her extraordinary abilities and traumatic experiences amplify these typical adolescent struggles, making it harder for her to find stability. For example, her telekinetic powers often isolate her, as seen when she used them to protect her friends from the Demogorgon in Season 1 (Sajdusek et al., 2016–2025), only to be left physically and emotionally drained. Though she has the capacity for sound decision-making, the pressures of adolescence and her unique circumstances often cloud her judgment.

Conclusion

Eleven’s journey in Stranger Things offers a compelling exploration of adolescent development, touching on social dynamics, parenting styles, Erickson theory of identity formation, and adolescent brain development. Through her experiences, we see how various factors, ranging from her authoritarian relationship with Hopper to her struggles with identity and belonging, shape her growth. Her supernatural powers and traumatic past amplify typical adolescent challenges, particularly navigating emotional turmoil, independence, and peer relationships. Eleven’s emotional and developmental journey resonates with many teenagers who face similar struggles with self-discovery, emotional intensity, and finding their place in the world and helping young people like Eleven navigate their path to adulthood.

References

Kuppens, S., & Ceulemans, E. (2019). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(1), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x

McLeod, S. (2024, January 25). Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Psychology Today. https://www.simplypsychology.org/erik-erikson.html

Nissim-Mathesis, L. (2019, May 2023). How to parent the teen struggle to fit in and stand out. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/special-matters/201905/how-to-parent-the-teen-struggle-to-fit-in-and-stand-out

Perry, C. (2024, February 20). Authoritarian parenting: The pros and cons, according to child psychologists. Parents. https://www.parents.com/parenting/better-parenting/style/authoritarian-parenting-the-pros-and-cons-according-to-a-child-psychologist/

Sajdusek, K., Wright, B., Holland, C., Thunell, M., Levy, S., Cohen, S., Duffer, M., Duffer, R., Paterson, I, & Gwinn, C. (Executive Producers). (2016-2025). Stranger things [TV series]. 21 Laps Entertainment

The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (2017, September). Teen brain: Behavior, problem solving, and decision making. https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/The-Teen-Brain-Behavior-Problem-Solving-and-Decision-Making-095.aspx

Weir, K. (2016, March). The risks of early puberty. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/03/puberty

Weiten, W. (2018). Psychology themes and variations. Cengage.

Woods, K. B., Hanish, L. D. (2021). Peer Relationships in Childhood. In T. K. Shackelford & V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (Eds), Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_2395

Sophia Camacho is a first-year nursing major at Holy Family University. After she graduates , she would love to continue her study to become a nurse practitioner. Although unsure which field she will pursue, forensic, OB, and PEDS are her top choices. In her free time, she loves to read and watch movies with her boyfriend to relax and destress. Follow Sophia on Instagram at https://www.instagram.com/sophiamaria.xo

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The sun is ever present in our lives, but is often a normal, nonremarkable fixture. I had usually never given it much thought, unless the weather interfered with my plans. But in the last few months, the sun and its impact on our earth have been in the news frequently because of a total solar eclipse and the vivid lights of auroras.

You may have seen headlines like this about the total solar eclipse that crossed the United States on April 8: “Tourists in Little Rock share excitement ahead of total solar eclipse” (Brown, 2024) or “Eclipse leaves trail of wonder, excitement in path through Arkansas” (Green et al., 2024). And you may have seen headlines like this about the northern lights visible on May 10 and 11 in large swaths of the world, including areas where they are not normally visible; “Jaw-dropping northern lights from massive solar flares amaze skywatchers around the world” (Malik & Dobrijevic, 2024).

A total eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and the earth, blocking out the sun’s light (NASA, 2024). During an eclipse, the moon slides into place slowly, over an hour from first contact to totality (American Astronomical Society, 2024; Exploratorium, 2024). The light steadily dims, before the mere minutes of totality, where the moon fully blots out the sun, leaving only the halo of the sun’s corona visible (NASA, 2024). Therefore, there is ample time in the lead-up to totality for people to socialize and connect with others who are also viewing the eclipse, as well as time for self-reflection.

The auroras are a result of particles from the sun colliding with the earth’s atmosphere and emitting light. The lights are strongest at the North and South poles, because the earth’s magnetic fields draw the particles towards the poles (Waldek & Dobrijevic, 2024).

I was lucky enough to witness both the eclipse and the northern lights and was overcome with feelings of awe and wonder. I felt aware of various connections to the self—to those I witnessed these events with, to my family and history, to humanity, to the earth, to the cosmos. Others I’ve spoken to have described similar feelings, and media coverage, like the news headlines above, also convey a sense of wonder and connection. But what information is there on the psychological effects of cosmological events?

Images of the northern lights have been used in multiple studies to elicit awe in controlled laboratory conditions (Gordon et al., 2017; Jiang & Sedikides, 2022). This is understandable, since the tables, chairs, and fluorescent lights of many psychology labs could hardly be described as awe-inspiring.

A 2022 article by Goldy et al., “The Social Effects of an Awesome Solar Eclipse,” covers the reactions to the 2017 total solar eclipse that crossed the United States. The authors were interested in reactions to the eclipse from those in the path of totality. They compiled data from X (formerly Twitter) to evaluate feelings of awe and “humility, collective focus, affiliation, and prosociality” (1453). Humility is an acknowledgment of one’s own limitations and openness to others’ views. I certainly felt aware of my own limitations as a human while I watched the heavens move above me. Collective focus and affiliation are feelings of connectedness with others. Prosociality is feelings of sharing, caring, and helping others. All of these feelings are needed for forming social groups, and for the duration of the eclipse, I formed a group with those at my viewing site. I made a connection with two groups from Missouri and Iowa as we talked about our journeys that had all converged on the same small corner of northeast Arkansas. The environment at the viewing site felt like a small town festival, with children running and playing, people chatting while grilling lunch, and sharing their photos with each other. Goldy et al., defined awe as “an emotion aroused by the sense that one is in the presence of something vaster than the self that defies current frames of reference for understanding the worlds” (1453). The authors found “the eclipse inspired awe among people in its path of totality and, in turn, increased humility, collective focus, affiliation, and prosociality” (1453). This suggests the eclipse elicited awe and increase attributes associated with social connections, with the authors acknowledging that many who observed the eclipse did so in a group setting, which may have influenced the results. They hypothesize that “celestial phenomena such as a solar eclipse can promote social cohesion and potentially provide an antidote to widening divisions and polarization in society” (1453).

My own feelings from the eclipse and northern lights certainly fit the definition of awe and wonder as I gazed at a sight that made me feel so small but connected, a single stitch in the fabric of the universe. I also felt connected to those who were witnessing these events across the world, but also to my own family history. One side of my family comes from Finland where the Northern Lights are more common compared to my midwestern home in the United States (Waldek & Dobrijevic, 2024). I finally witnessed a part of the folklore experienced by hundreds of relatives and countless ancestors whom I had never met. The Finnish word for the Aurora Borealis translates to “foxfire” and the flaming fox tail is said to create the blazes of auroras in the sky. The Northern Lights is also featured in the Kalevala, the national epic of Finland (House of Lapland, 2024).

There is scientific evidence of awe from experiencing cosmological events, though this experience isn’t limited to just cosmological events. Other natural wonders could also inspire these feelings, like waterfalls, forests, and canyons (Gordon et al., 2017). There may be awe-inspiring sights all around you, ready to ignite wonder and connection. Auroras are more likely to make widespread appearances now, even in places that do not normally see them, because the earth is in the solar maximum of the solar cycle (Dobrijevic, 2022; National Weather Service, 2020). Awe and connections may also await you in the sky, all you need to do is look up.

References

American Astronomical Society. (2024). A solar eclipse glossary. https://eclipse.aas.org/eclipse-america/eclipse-glossary

Breen, D., Lenora, J., Ryan, M., & Treece, N. (2024, April 8). Eclipse leaves trail of wonder, excitement in path through Arkansas. KUAR. https://www.ualrpublicradio.org/local-regional-news/2024-04-08/eclipse-leaves-trail-of-wonder-excitement-in-path-through-arkansas

Brown, R. (2024, April 7). Tourists in Little Rock share excitement ahead of total solar eclipse. THV11. https://www.thv11.com/article/news/world/solar-eclipse/tourists-little-rock-total-solar-eclipse/91-e514d18c-b609-40f2-8f36-66009396a787

Dobrijevic, D. (2022, April). Solar cycle: What is it and why does it matter? Space.com https://www.space.com/solar-cycle-frequency-prediction-facts

Exploratorium. (2024). Guide to the 2024 total solar eclipse. https://www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/2024-total-solar-eclipse-guide

Goldy, S.P., Jones N.M., & Piff, P. K. (2022). The social effects of an awesome solar eclipse. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1452–1462. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976221085501

Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., Anderson, C. L., McNeil, G. D., Loew, D., & Keltner, D. (2017). The dark side of the sublime: Distinguishing a threat-based variant of awe. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(2), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000120

House of Lapland (2024). Dark side of the auroras – legends & myths. https://www.lapland.fi/visit/only-in-lapland/lapland-northern-lights-myths-auroras/

Jiang, T., & Sedikides, C., (2022). Awe motivates authentic-self pursuit via self-transcendence: Implications for prosociality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes, 123(3), 576–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000381

Malik, T., & Dobrijevic, D. (2024, May 11). Jaw-dropping northern lights from massive solar flares amaze skywatchers around the world. 'We have a very rare event on our hands.' (photos). https://www.space.com/spectacular-northern-lights-rare-solar-flares-may-2024

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2024, July). Total solar eclipse FAQ. https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/faq/

National Weather Service (2020, September). Hello Solar Cycle 25. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.weather.gov/news/201509-solar-cycle

Waldek, S., & Dobrijevic, D. (2024, February 9). Northern lights (aurora borealis): What they are & how to see them. https://www.space.com/15139-northern-lights-auroras-earth-facts-sdcmp.html

Anna Kuure-Kinsey is an alumna of Psi Chi, Grinnell College Chapter. She currently works for the State of Minnesota. Her hobbies include reading, writing, learning new languages, and learning about all things psychology. Follow her on LinkedIn.

According to a recent report (Petrosyan, 2024), 5.04 billion people worldwide—62.3% of the world’s population—use social media. Whether it is Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, TikTok, X—formerly known as Twitter—or Snapchat, the vast majority of humankind—8.09 billion people and counting—uses at least one social media platform. In the modern era, social media has become an integral part of people’s everyday lives. Interestingly enough, Pew Research Center (2023) declares, “Today, half of U.S. adults [receive] news at least sometimes from social media,” with 30% of “U.S. adults [saying] they regularly [receive] news” from Facebook. Moreover, 26% say they regularly receive news from YouTube, 16% from Instagram, 14% from TikTok, 12% from X, and 4% from Snapchat. With these statistics in mind, it is important to note the use of social media as a tool for information exchange, extending far beyond that which is covered in the news.

A tool to be used by and for people, however, possesses the potential, realized or not, to inflict harms unto users that—until relatively recent times, as in the case of social media—have been unobserved, unanalyzed, and, as such, unaddressed. Indeed, the true nature of social media exists outside of natural truths. That is to say, social media, much like other online spaces and the internet itself, is positioned at what can be described as the intersection between fact and fiction, a critical point whereat realities and possibilities tend not to be clearly delineated. Truths and falsehoods travel as waves in an endless sea of information to process. For a multitude of reasons, people may be unwilling or unable to analyze data at such high flow rates, allowing for countless data points of varying degrees of veracity to homogenize. Inextricably, truths amalgamate with falsehoods, thereby poisoning the well. The cognitive demands of critical thinking are great, and people, flawed by nature and denying of how so, err in judgment all throughout their lives. People use heuristics in accordance with claims from unreliable sources, regardless of benevolent or malicious intentions, as well as assumptions formed in the absence of clarity, filling in gaps by any and as many means necessary (Strough et al., 2011). Gradually, errors in discernment accrue, and perception forms the basis of reality.

With unprecedented access to knowledge and, by extension, the great power it holds, should come unprecedentedly great responsibility. Generally, people interact with information and, unknowingly, misinformation with motives. These motives vary between people and may be conscious or unconscious. However, for most people, survival is of the utmost importance. People go to great lengths to self-preserve—or, rather, preserve whom they perceive themselves to be (Harmon-Jones & Mills, 2019). Curiously, the self consists of more than the core of one’s identity—the who and what am I. Consciously and unconsciously, people identify with their most strongly-held beliefs, which presents a myriad of problems when interacting with information. People hold onto beliefs with tenacity despite being unable to support them to reasonable standards. These beliefs have been allowed—or forced—to form the fundamental bases of their identities. Furthermore, challenging beliefs of this significance would be tantamount to questioning their holder’s entire existence. This may explain triggers and other survivalist responses, such as “fight or flight,” to what may be perceived as self-negating information (Muldoon & Lowe, 2012).

The virtual aspect of social media appeals to users for a plethora of reasons, one of the most concerning being the ability to curate what they share with others, and vice versa. Social media enables users to focus their attention on things of their choosing, ignoring all else if they are so inclined. As per a recent report (Dixon, 2024), the average user spends 143 minutes on social media per day. With this much time being spent on social media on a daily basis, users engage with high volumes of content, often at high velocities as well, and these engagements are subjected to data analytics. Ultimately, this process results in the formation of algorithms, likening the odds of capturing and holding the attention of users by constantly adapting to their content preferences. These algorithms enable users to escape from the free- and ever-flowing nature of actual reality. From the comfort of virtual reality, users control what they experience instead of allowing the world and life to occur as they naturally would, with hints of randomness and the kind of growth that cannot be stimulated from within the confines of a nonphysical vacuum—or echo chamber, as it is colloquially referred to. Because of this, the effects of regular social media use on the mental health of users has been called into question.

Mental health is the topic of many difficult discussions. The National Institute of Mental Health (2023) discloses, “It is estimated that more than one in five U.S. adults live with a mental illness (57.8 million in 2021).” However, despite its prevalence, mental illness is highly stigmatized. According to the American Psychiatric Association (Singhal, 2024), “More than half of people with mental illness don’t receive help for their disorders.” In many cases, subjected to prejudice and discrimination, people with mental illness “avoid or delay seeking treatment due to concerns about being treated differently or fears of losing their jobs and livelihood” (Singhal, 2024). For many people with mental illness, social media is used to facilitate discussions on mental health-related topics, such as diagnosis, treatment, and coping strategies across diverse contexts. Additionally, people with mental illness use social media to find communities to and from which they can give and receive acceptance and support. With constructive use of social media, online mental health communities can assemble in the real world to meet common goals, such as advocating for visibility of people with mental illness and accessibility to helpful community resources and programs.

Increasing mental health awareness is a cause worthy of admiration. If this can be achieved with the help of social media, by all means, it should. Be that as it may, a fine line lies between healthful awareness and harmful exposure. In an article published by John Hopkins Medicine (McVay, 2023), director of psychology, neuropsychology, and social work and co-director of the Center for Behavioral Health at John Hopkins All Children’s Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida, Jennifer Katzenstein, PhD states, “Increasingly, mental health professionals observe children and teens ‘self-diagnosing’ mental disorders after watching influencers discuss them on TikTok and other social media platforms.” This presents an issue of many great complexities. All users have the right to post content to social media wherein they disclose their mental health experiences, sharing “anecdotes about symptoms, coping strategies and even potential diagnoses” with the aims of raising awareness and lowering stigmatization. Unfortunately, without a firm grasp of the nuances of mental health, as is rare even among adults, children and teenagers are at a high risk of being led astray, even if provided with factual information by the most well-intentioned of influencers. Based on a single social media post alone, children and teenagers may readily believe they and their favorite influencers share mental disorders when, in fact, they share mental health experiences. Certainly, this distinction can be difficult to make, especially if needs for belongingness are unmet. Naturally, people seek validation from the outer world. In many ways, validation is a decision, albeit an unconscious one. According to self-validation theory, people decide what from the outer world verifies them and their experiences (Briñol & Petty, 2022). To self-validate, oftentimes, subjective interpretations and misinterpretations triumph over objective truths. This is even truer of children and teenagers, who “are in a phase of identity formation, autonomy development, and self-discovery,” says Dr. Katzenstein (McVay, 2023). To lighten the load of these sociopsychological processes, users browse social media platforms in search of online communities, engaging with content they find to be relatable. Herein lies the issue: Some users may resonate with the mental health experiences of influencers and other users with—or, rather, presenting with—mental disorders, as portrayed on social media. This resonance may be viewed as a clear and certain indicator of sharing mental disorders. To illustrate this mental process with an example, one may struggle with indiscretion in social situations. After seeing a post on social media about signs and symptoms of autism spectrum disorder, including an inability to perceive social cues, one may relate with the content and/or its creator and proceed to self-diagnose with the disorder. In reality, one may have a different mental disorder or none at all. Dr. Katzenstein has encountered this techno-psychological phenomenon in her practice, saying, “Some of my teen patients have mentioned content from social media platforms during therapy sessions, often discussing how they feel they have certain symptoms, or can relate to certain experiences that they’ve seen online,” which, she warns, can “[lead] to a misunderstanding of a diagnosis or over-pathologizing of a symptom that is within the range of typical” (McVay, 2023). At this point, this issue enters the intersection of fact and fiction, as described previously, and because all data points can be evaluated as true—or, at the very least, possible—many people will err on the side of doing what feels right rather than what is. Consequently, individual narratives become collective truths as people resolve to discover rather than uncover themselves, struggling to find spaces wherein they can fit without ever learning how to measure themselves.

Self-diagnosing mental disorders based on social media posts is a serious issue. This practice distorts people’s views of mental health and, in them, induces unhealthy and, in general, unnecessary stress, rising to levels of anxiety in some cases (McVay, 2023). Regardless of accuracy, adhering to self-diagnoses can delay or prevent people from receiving proper treatment. All diagnostic processes should be performed by licensed health care professionals. If one has mental health-related concerns, one should seek advice from a qualified mental health practitioner, such as a mental health counselor or psychologist, who has received extensive education and training in clinical assessment and treatment. Even among licensed health care professionals, advisability varies. Of course, this variability is significantly higher among nonprofessionals. If concerned with health, it is best to go to the experts and get a second opinion—and as many others—as is necessary to make better informed care decisions.

References

Briñol, P., & Petty, R.E. (2022). Self-validation theory: An integrative framework for understanding when thoughts become consequential. Psychological Review, 129(2), 340–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000340

Dixon, S.J. (2024, March 26). Daily time spent on social networking by internet users worldwide from 2012 to 2024 (in minutes) [Infographic]. Statista. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-social-media-usage-worldwide/

Harmon-Jones, E., & Mills, J. (2019). An introduction to cognitive dissonance theory and an overview of current perspectives on the theory. In E. Harmon-Jones (Ed.), Cognitive dissonance: Reexamining a pivotal theory in psychology (2^nd ed., pp. 3–24). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000135-001

McVay, E. (2023, August 31). Social media and self-diagnosis. John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/articles/2023/08/social-media-and-self-diagnosis
#:~:text=Increasingly%2C%20mental%20health%20professionals%20observe,these
%20platforms%20can%20be%20harmful

Muldoon, O.T., & Lowe, R.D. (2012). Identity, conflict, and the experience of trauma: The social psychology of intervention and engagement following political violence. In K.J. Jonas & T.A. Morton (Eds.), Restoring civil societies: The psychology of intervention and engagement following crisis (pp. 208–221). John Wiley and Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118347683.ch12

National Institute of Mental Health. (2023, March). Mental illness. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/mental-illness#part_2555

Petrosyan, A. (2024, January 31). Number of internet and social media users worldwide as of January 2024 (in billions) [Infographic]. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/

Pew Research Center. (2023, November 15). Social media and news fact sheet [Fact sheet]. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/social-media-and-news-fact-sheet/

Singhal, M.D., N. (2024, March). Stigma, prejudice and discrimination against people with mental illness. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/stigma-and-discrimination 

Pew Research Center (2024, September). Social media and news fact sheet. https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/social-media-and-news-fact-sheet/

Strough, J., Karns, T.E., & Schlosnagle, L. (2011). Decision-making heuristics and biases across the life span. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1235, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06208.x

Kyle Ah Loo is a graduate of Saint Francis University in Loretto, PA, where he majored in psychology, double-minoring in neuroscience and animal-assisted health and education. Born and raised on Oʻahu, HI, Ah Loo resides there with his family now, working in the mental/behavioral health field. His hobbies consist of playing volleyball, which he played in college, video games, and outdoor activities such as hiking and going to the beach.

Very special thanks to Dr. Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg, who encouraged me to write and submit this article for publication during my final semester of university.

This year, during our fall chapter membership application period at the University of Victoria (UVic), we noticed a lack of graduate students applying for a Psi Chi membership. This surprised us, because becoming a member of Psi Chi provides graduate students with many award and scholarship opportunities, including travel grants to support the development and spread of knowledge within psychology. Being a member is also a great way to network with other psychologists at Psi Chi conventions and to have the opportunity to publish research in the Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research. With these benefits at their disposal, we were unsure as to why so few graduate students were applying.

To rectify this issue, we wanted to understand why so few graduate students applied, and if there was anything we could do about it. After reaching out to our graduate students, we learned that it was not a lack of interest keeping them from applying, but instead, a lack of information. Even though opportunities exist to help support them through their post undergrad experience, many of our graduate students were not aware of Psi Chi and the benefits that being a member provides.

Upon further reflection, we also recognized our role in this due to our abundance of support towards undergraduate students while lacking that same drive towards graduate students, as well as our board lacking graduate student voices to discuss their needs. Our chapter places a tremendous effort on caring for undergraduate students who have taken an interest in the field of psychology. From events such as “How to get into Research” and “Life After Undergrad,” we help students learn essential information to better their undergraduate experience and prepare them for the future. Whether by providing networking opportunities with professors or allowing students to present their research at our annual “Making Waves” conference, we aim to ensure that undergraduate students are well-supported throughout their post-secondary journey. And yet, we had not created events or leadership opportunities geared specifically for graduate students.

To start supporting graduate students, we created a new officer position on our board: Psi Chi Graduate Student Liaison. This position is specifically for a UVic graduate student, helping to ensure we hear graduate student voices and that Psi Chi information and opportunities can be passed on to graduate students in a timely fashion. Additionally, to help spread the word about the benefits of joining Psi Chi, we held our very first graduate student information night on January 30, 2025. After giving an overview of the benefits that come with being a member of Psi Chi, Kaitlyn Punt (copresident), Leah Derry (copresident), and Sam Coleborn (graduate student liaison) mingled with our graduate students and answered any questions they had. With snacks aplenty, we fostered great discussions about ways to get graduate students involved and hopefully encouraged more of them to apply for a Psi Chi membership during our next application period. Overall, it was a great start in promoting support for our graduate students.

The current lack of graduate student involvement in the UVic Psi Chi community is unfortunate. Graduate students would benefit tremendously from becoming members, and we need to make a concerted effort to inform them of the opportunities gained from joining the international Psi Chi community. Psi Chi has been a life-changing influence for many of our undergraduate students and officers, and we very much want our graduate students to have their lives changed for the better, just as ours have. Although each chapter of Psi Chi is unique and may hold different events throughout the year, offering more ways to support and encourage graduate students is a great way to maintain our commitment to the values of Psi Chi and may even motivate undergraduates to pursue graduate studies through connecting and networking with current graduate students.

This experience has reminded us that we need to look for more ways to help support and integrate graduate students into our Psi Chi community during their academic journey. One way we can start is by gaining more awareness about the kinds of support they require. Through meaningful discussions, we can design events that cater to graduate students’ needs and help develop their academic capabilities. Another way we can receive more graduate student input is by encouraging their involvement as Psi Chi officers to help influence the structure of events offered throughout the academic year. Additionally, by engaging more with our graduate students, we very much hope to create opportunities for them to mentor our undergraduates—whether that be with tips on how to navigate academic stress, coursework questions, or guidance on how to successfully apply to graduate school.

Graduate students are essential in advancing the field of psychology, and we should help support them during their journey, however we can. Although to date, we have only held one event that caters to our graduate student population, we look forward to hosting many more and hope that other chapters of Psi Chi are equally inspired to create their own events to support their graduate students. By focusing on renewing our commitment to improving the academic experience of all students, Psi Chi can provide support to those on their graduate journey and beyond.

A good laugh is like a digital high-five—instantly shareable, immediately connecting, and universally welcomed. Although what makes us laugh might be as personal as our social media recommendations, humor remains one of humanity's most powerful communication tools. It's the original viral content, if you will.

Humor isn't just about getting likes and shares—it's a cornerstone of human connection. Research shows that it plays a crucial role in building and maintaining relationships (Lefcourt, 2001), while also serving as a psychological safety net when emotions get heavy (Ford, 2016). Enter Generation Z, who've mastered the art of being "unserious" in serious times—so much so that they've earned a reputation for it (Dey, 2025).

But here's the plot twist: Gen Z's seemingly irreverent humor isn't just random. Having grown up with smartphones as digital pacifiers, this generation has experienced a unique humor evolution. They've had front-row seats to global crises and terror through their screens from an unusually young age (Reddy, 2023). Social media hasn't just connected them—it's created a global factory for inside jokes, with memes as its primary export (Aronson, 2022). The result? A brand of humor that older generations might find as comprehensible as their grandparents found rock 'n' roll—absurd, dark, and distinctly Gen Z (Partlow, 2021).

The numbers tell an interesting story: Imagine a generation where less than 11% watches traditional news (Watson, 2022). Although older generations still hold to their newspapers, Gen Z is getting their news between TikTok dances and Instagram reels. This shift hasn't gone unnoticed—governments are now sliding into the conversation with memes (Putri, 2024), and businesses are trading their suit-and-tie advertising for something more... memeable. Even traditional TV commercials have embraced the absurd, serving up bite-sized pieces of weirdness that would have made Salvador Dalí proud (Kala, 2022).

Before you dismiss this as the death of serious discourse, consider this: Gen Z's apparent frivolity might be more strategic than it appears. Their meme-first approach to communication isn't avoiding deep issues—it's making them more digestible. When the world serves up darkness, Gen Z responds with a side of dark humor. It's not avoidance; it's adaptation. Their brand of healthy humor acts as a spotlight, illuminating global issues while keeping the conversation engaging and, yes, even hopeful (Panella, 2024).

In a world where doom scrolling seems to be the norm, Gen Z has found a way to keep the conversation going in a (somewhat) healthy way. Their humor isn't just coping—it's connecting and communicating.

References

Aronson, P., & Jaffal, I. (2022). Zoom memes for self-quaranteens: Generational humor, identity, and conflict during the pandemic. Emerging Adulthood, 10(2), 519–533. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968211058513

Dey, A. (2025, January 13). Gen Z is the most ‘unserious generation': Expert explains why they use humor to deal with uncomfortable situations. Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/relationships/gen-z-is-the-most-unserious-generation-expert-explains-why-they-use-humour-to-deal-with-uncomfortable-situations-101736752667306.html

Ford, T. E., Platt, T., Richardson, K., & Tucker, R. (2016). The psychology of humor: Basic research and translation. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000066

Kala, I. (2022, November). What is in a meme: Analysing the perception of
Gen Z to memes and virality in modern marketing. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2775799546?fromopenview=true&pq-origsite=gscholar&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals 

Lefcourt, H. M. (2001). Humor: The psychology of living buoyantly. Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4287-2

Panella, M. (2024, October 23). Gen Z culture is the perfect blend of humor and heart. The Loyola Phoenix. https://loyolaphoenix.com/2024/10/gen-z-culture-is-the-perfect-blend-of-humor-and-heart/

Partlow, C., & Talarczyk, P. (2021). Absurdism and Generation Z humor: The effects of absurdist content on perceived humor levels in Generation Z students. Journal of Student Research, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.47611/jsrhs.v10i4.2011

Putri, S. D., Rahmawati, D. E., & Fridayani, H. D. (2024). Memes for meaningful engagement: Connecting with Gen Z through authentic government communication. JGP International Conference. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4783779

Reddy, A. (2023, June 27). The inside-out of Gen Z: Helping through positive psychology. Psychology India Magazine. https://psychology.net.in/the-inside-out-of-gen-z-helping-through-positive-psychology/

Watson, A. (2022, October 17). Gen Z news consumption U.S. 2022. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1124119/gen-z-news-consumption-us/

Remember when games had endings? Gen Z doesn't. The rise of "forever games"—those seemingly endless online experiences lacking clear resolution—is fundamentally transforming how an entire generation understands play (Young, 2024). These digital playgrounds have expanded the definition of gaming into a rich tapestry of social, creative, and entertainment experiences.

Gen Z has embraced this new paradigm with open arms. They're not just casual players; they're the most active gaming generation in history (Coppens, 2024). How active? Try seven hours per week on average (Brune, 2021). Imagine watching the "Harry Potter" movies every week, but instead of watching Harry's journey, they're creating their own adventures.

But here's where it gets interesting: For Gen Z, gaming isn't just about having fun. Traditional games still deliver those feel-good vibes to both mind and body (Donato et al., 2024), but they've evolved into something more—a digital town square where communities form, friendships flourish, and learning happens. The numbers tell the story: 71% of Gen Z gamers don't just play games; they watch game-related content and streams (Brune, 2021). Take "Ninja," for instance. This gamer turned his Fortnite skills into a career, racking up 2.5 billion views and earning $500,000 monthly by March 2023 (Celebrity Net Worth, 2025).

In addition, neuroscientists have been burning the midnight oil studying how video games affect cognition, brain function, and structure (Gallinat et al., 2019). Decades of research have unveiled a complex picture of gaming's impact on everything from physical health to social behaviors and cognitive development (Alanko, 2023).

But perhaps the most fascinating plot twist is how gaming has infiltrated the classroom. Medical schools are leading the charge, using gamification to transform potentially dry material into engaging challenges that cultivate higher-level thinking (Bhattacharjee et al., 2024). Surprisingly? It works. Students prefer these gamified approaches to traditional methods, and they are more effective (Ding et al., 2017). Extended reality takes it even further, putting students in the driver's seat of their own learning journey while boosting interaction with teachers (Kuleto et al., 2021). Even financial literacy—traditionally about as exciting as watching paint dry—has gotten the gaming treatment, making money management actually engaging for Gen Z (Dinata et al., 2025).

For Generation Z, gaming isn't just a pastime—it's a lens through which they view the world. It shapes how they connect, learn, and even build careers. Like any powerful tool, it demands respect and balance. But one thing's certain: The game has changed, and Gen Z is writing the new rules.

References

Alanko, D. (2023). The health effects of video games in children and adolescents. American Academy of Pediatrics. https://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-abstract/44/1/23/190316/The-Health-Effects-of-Video-Games-in-Children-and?redirectedFrom=fulltex

Bhattacharjee, M., Mahanta, A., Naveen, P., Sinha, A., & Sundareswaran, L. (2024). Making a serious game (gamification) for generation Z medical students to learn, teach, and assess medical Physiology. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 13(1), 212. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_1177_23

Brune, M. (2021). Gen Z gamers: Key insights. New Zoo. https://newzoo.com/resources/blog/gen-z-gamers-key-insights

Celebrity Net Worth. (2025, February 25). Tyler "Ninja" Blevins net worth. https://www.celebritynetworth.com/richest-celebrities/rock-stars/tyler-ninja-blevins-net-worth/

Coppens, A. (2024). Why gamification is relevant and how to appeal different generations. Gamification Nation. https://gamificationnation.com/blog/why-gamification-is-relevant-and-how-to-appeal-to-different-generations/

Ding, D., Guan, C., & Yu, Y. (2017). Game-based learning in tertiary education. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 7(2), 148–152.

Dinata, H., Lisana, L., & Tanudjaja, G.V. (2025). Playing to learn: Game-based approach to financial literacy for generation Z. Entertainment Computing, 52, 100896. https://repository.ubaya.ac.id/47386/3/Hendra%20Dinata_Playing%20to%20learn.pdf

Donato, P. T., Ignacio, S. R., & Manumbali, Q. A. (2024). Factors affecting the decreasing interest of Filipino people under Generation Z in playing traditional games. ERPA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research. https://eprajournals.com/pdf/fm/jpanel/upload/2024/October/202410-01-018569

Gallinat, J., Kuhn, S., & Mascherek, A. (2019). Effects of computer gaming on cognition, brain structure, and function: A critical reflection on existing literature. PubMed Central. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6829166/

Kuleto, V., P. M., Paun, D., Rankovic, M., Sevic, N. P., Stanescu, M., & Teodorescu, S. (2021).Extended reality in higher education, a responsible innovation approach for Generation Y and Generation Z. Sustainability. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/21/11814# 

Young, B. (2024). The rise of ‘forever games’—and why Gen Z is paying for them. Sky News. https://news.sky.com/story/the-rise-of-forever-games-and-why-gen-z-is-paying-for-them-13254637

Gen Z is often caricatured as lazy and unmotivated in the workplace (Choughari, 2024). With priorities and work styles that differ from previous generations, their approach can make older workers uncomfortable. Although these differences in work values are often viewed as negative, what if we are simply watching the evolution of work in action?

Gen Z is predicted to revolutionize the workforce (Agarwal et al., 2018). Like the generations before them, Gen Z's motivations, priorities, and communication styles are products of their unique cultural context (Surugiu et al., 2025) and major technological changes (Twenge, 2023). Members of Gen Z respond strongly to extrinsic rewards—praise, validation, promotions (Madden, 2025)—but with a twist: They prioritize mental health and work–life balance with unprecedented clarity. Their communication style breaks traditional molds, embracing diversity and inclusion in ways that reflect seismic shifts in societal values. The explanation? Each generation is shaped by their defining moments—World War II for Boomers, COVID-19 for Gen Z (Twenge, 2023).

The technological revolution of 2010 fundamentally rewired how Gen Z approaches work. They're masters of working smarter, not harder, welding technology like a Swiss Army knife to boost efficiency and productivity. Although they enter the workforce with remarkable tech prowess, some worry about their face-to-face communication skills (O'Boyle, 2017). The key difference? Gen Z sees work as work, not life itself. Unlike their predecessors, who often built their social lives around the office water cooler, Gen Z draws clear boundaries. Modern technology enables this efficiency-first approach, supporting reduced hours and remote work options (Albrychiewicz, 2022). This shift to remote work has unleashed new possibilities for both organizations and employees, particularly in terms of autonomy and flexibility (Ljungquist, 2023).

Work priorities have evolved into something their grandparents might not recognize. Gen Z champions safe, positive work environments while prioritizing home and family life. They're pioneering real work-life balance, not just talking about it. This boundary-setting has become their mental health superpower, separating work from personal fulfillment. When people find their work genuinely exciting, intrinsic motivation soars (Dwivedula, 2024). Many are transforming passion into paychecks, valuing enjoyment over traditional corporate ladders. This generation places unprecedented value on workplace relationships and positive environments (Hidayat et al., 2024). By championing positivity, inclusivity, and holistic well-being, Gen Z isn't just adapting to the workplace—they are redefining it

References 

Agarwal, H., & Vaghela, P. (2018, December). Work values of Gen Z: Bridging the gap to the next generation. In National Conference on Innovative Business Management Practices in 21st Century (Vol. 1, p. 26). Faculty of Management Studies, Parul University, Gujarat, India.

Albrychiewicz-Słocińska, A. (2022). Motivational aspects of remote working—A Generation Z perspective. Zeszyty Naukowe. Organizacja i Zarządzanie. Politechnika Śląska, (166), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.29119/1641-3466.2022.166.2

Choughari, H. (2024). The impact of Gen-Z in the workplace. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/councils/forbeshumanresourcescouncil/2024/02/05/the-impact-of-gen-z-in-the-workplace/

Dwivedula, R. (2024). Why is generation Z motivated at work? A qualitative exploration. Global Business and Organizational Excellence, 44(3), 38–49. https:// doi.org/10.1002/joe.22273  

Hidayat, R. M. D., & Linando, J. A. (2024). The influence of work-life balance & healthy lifestyle on mental health through focus on work in Gen Z employees. Selekta Manajemen: Jurnal Mahasiswa Bisnis & Manajemen, 3(1), 166–180.  https://journal.uii.ac.id/selma/article/view/36638/17380

Ljungquist, S., & Lund, S. (2023). Gen Z @Work: A changing management situation: A qualitative study of Generation Z in a remote working environment from a management perspective [Master's thesis, Jönköping University].

Madden, C. (2025). Unlocking the motivation of Gen Z at work: An empirical approach [Doctoral dissertation, Alphacrucis University College, Australia]. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences.

O’Boyle, C., Atack, J., & Monahan, K. (2017). Generation Z enters the workplace: What to expect from the newest generation of workers. Deloitte Insights. https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/technology-and-the-future-of-work/generation-z-enters-workforce.html

Surugiu, C., Surugiu, M.-R., Grădinaru, C., & Grigore, A.-M. (2025). Factors motivating Generation Z in the workplace: Managerial challenges and insights. Administrative Sciences, 15(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15010029

Twenge, J. (2023). Generations: The real differences between Gen Z, millennials, Gen X, boomers, and silents—and what they mean for America's future. Atria Books.

For generations, admission to Harvard symbolized the American dream. However, this year, first-year applications to Harvard dropped by 5.14%, and early enrollment declined by 17% (Sheffey, 2024). Beyond Harvard, overall student interest in college fell from 68% in 2023 to 58% in 2024 (Turner, 2024). A Gallup poll conducted with the Walton Family Foundation (2023) found that, although 85% of Gen Z students recognize the importance of college, only 62% plan to pursue higher education (for comparison, at the same age, 74% of Millennials planned to attend college).

Several potential forces may be driving this shift.

1. Academic Engagement. Just 14% of middle and high school students strongly agreed to a statement asking if they felt challenged in school (Turner, 2024).
2. Affordability. Only 53% of students believe they can finance college, with Black students facing this barrier more acutely (Schwartz, 2023).
3. Rising Tuition. Student debt concerns and FAFSA delays further deter students.
4. Return on Investment. Forty-six percent of Gen Z respondents questioned if college is a valuable investment (Sheffey, 2024).
5. Declining Trust in Higher Education. Thirty-five percent of Gen Z respondents to a national survey in 2022 reported a lack of trust in higher education (Knott, 2022)

As sentiment toward higher education changes, what are members of Gen Z doing instead? Popular alternatives are trade schools, full-time work, and entrepreneurship. Krawcke (2024) notes that Gen Z is increasingly choosing trade schools due to rising tuition costs and immediate earning potential. Schwartz (2023) highlights how financial independence and job security are key motivators, with many students seeking hands-on training.

Despite these shifts, awareness of alternative career paths remains limited—although 68% frequently hear about college, only 23% are informed about apprenticeships, and 19% about nondegree career options (Turner, 2024). Experts suggest that new technologies and rising salaries in fields like welding, plumbing, and machine tooling are making trade professions more appealing (Johnston, 2024). With programs lasting only months to two years, many trade school graduates secure high-paying jobs, some earning six figures (Hodges, 2024). As Gen Z continues to redefine success, the traditional four-year college model faces increasing competition from alternative education and career pathways.

This shift, although serious in its implications, also reflects a generation unafraid to question long-standing norms and explore new possibilities. Perhaps the dream is no longer confined to ivy-covered walls, but found in welding helmets, coding boot camps, and start-up garages.

References

Hodges, D. Z. (2024). Gen Z chooses trade schools over traditional colleges. Recruiting & Retaining Adult Learners, 26(11), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/nsr.31210

Johnston, W. (2024, April 22). Gen Z turns to trade schools for job opportunities over college. https://www.npr.org/2024/04/22/1245858737/gen-z-trade-vocational-schools-jobs-college

Knott, K. (2022, August 11). Gen Z’s distrust in higher ed. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2022/08/12/survey-highlights-gen-zs-distrust-higher-ed

Krawcke, N. (2024). Gen Z ditching college for trade school. Plumbing & Mechanical, 42(5), 5–6. https://www.pmmag.com/articles/105494-gen-z-ditching-college-for-trade-school

Schwartz, N. (2023, September 15). Gen Z values college, but affordability concerns remain. Higher Ed Dive. https://www.highereddive.com/news/gen-z-values-college-affordability-concerns-gallup/693762/

Sheffey, A. (2024). Gen Z isn't sure higher education is worth it—and it might be taking a toll on Harvard (US edition ed.). Business Insider, Inc. https://www.businessinsider.com/harvard-college-admissions-drop-gen-z-doesnt-value-higher-education-2024-4

Turner, C. (2024, August 29). Teens are losing interest in school, and say they hear about college “a lot.” NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/08/29/nx-s1-5090895/teens-school-college-poll

Walton Family Foundation. (2024, August). Gen Zers envision a bright future ahead but feel ill-prepared for it, New Gallup Survey finds. https://www.waltonfamilyfoundation.org/about-us/newsroom/gen-zers-envision-a-bright-future-ahead-but-feel-ill-prepared-for-it-new-gallup-survey-finds

Artificial intelligence (AI) is being heralded as a game-changer in various industries, and its potential to revolutionize education is no exception (Holmes & Tuomi, 2022). By leveraging AI tools in the classroom, educators can enhance both teaching methods and student learning outcomes, ushering in a new era of personalized education.

AI can be a direct teaching and learning tool in our psychology classrooms. Imagine introductory psychology classes where students' first experiences with psychology are guided by AI-powered programs that collect and analyze students' performance data from various sources in real time to create individual learning profiles and automatically offer personalized content, feedback, and learning adjustments (Kim et al., 2022). Individualization and dynamic adaptation can reduce student disengagement from learning (Lin & Chen, 2024). The ability for AI to create learning experiences that are highly customized and adaptable is one of the major promises of AI-enhanced education technology (Limna et al., 2022; Luckin & Holmes, 2016).

Paradoxically, even as AI promises more individualized learning, it may threaten the learning community, an essential aspect of the psychology classroom. As education becomes more immersed in technological pedagogy, it is important for the relationships between the human learners and teachers to remain intact. Jia and Zhang (2021) identify social disconnection (Bender, 2024) as a major potential threat of integrating AI into the classroom.

As psychology teachers and students, we also need to be aware of concerns about AI’s impact on student psychology, including thinking, emotions, and behavior. Because of the youth of these technologies, there has not been sufficient time for comprehensive research on the long-term psychological effects of AI, including risks like technology dependency and weakened social skills (Kundu & Bej, 2024).

As AI in education expands, ethical concerns must be directly addressed (Schiff, 2021). Generative AI raises questions about academic principles, leading some universities to ban its use (Castillo, 2023). Unfortunately, these technologies' ubiquity and ease of access suggest that educational bans are not long-term solutions (Bowen & Watson, 2024). Instead, Chan (2023) recommends AI education policies that help students learn about maintaining academic integrity and intellectual engagement. Such policies prepare students to think critically about the ethical considerations of AI in future courses, their profession, and other aspects of life. Essential to any use of AI is that faculty fully immerse themselves in understanding these technologies as they decide where they fit—or don’t fit—in their courses (Fitria, 2021).

In conclusion, the integration of AI into psychology education holds immense promise. By creating adaptive learning experiences customized to individual learning needs, AI promises to transform how we teach and learn psychology. The degree to which AI enhances, rather than disrupts, learning in our psychology classrooms depends on our willingness to engage this growing technology.

References

Bender, E. M. (2024). Resisting dehumanization in the age of “AI”. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 33(2), 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214231217286

Bowen, J. A., & Watson, C. E. (2024). Teaching with AI: A practical guide to a new era of human learning. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Castillo, E. (2023, March 27). Schools and colleges that have banned ChatGPT and similar AI tools. BestColleges. https://www.bestcolleges.com/news/schools-colleges-banned-chat-gpt-similar-ai-tools/

Chan, C. K. Y. (2023). A comprehensive AI Policy Education Framework for university teaching and learning. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20, 38. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41239-023-00408-3

Fitria, T. N. (2021). Artificial intelligence (AI) in education: Using AI tools for teaching and learning process. Prosiding Seminar Nasional & Call for Paper STIE AAS, 4(1), 134–147. https://prosiding.stie-aas.ac.id/index.php/prosenas/article/view/106

Holmes, W., & Tuomi, I. (2022). State of the art and practice in AI in Education. European Journal of Education, 57(4), 542–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12533

Jia, S., & Zhang, X. (2021). Teaching mode of psychology and pedagogy in colleges and universities based on artificial intelligence technology. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1852(3), 032033. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1852/3/032033

Kim, J., Lee, H., & Cho, Y. H. (2022). Learning design to support student-AI collaboration: Perspectives of leading teachers for AI in Education. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 6069–6104. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10639-021-10831-6

Kundu, A., & Bej, T. (2024). Psychological impacts of AI use on school students: A systematic scoping review of the empirical literature. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 20, 030. https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2025.20030

Limna, P., Jakwatanatham, S., Siripipattanakul, S., Kaewpuang, P., & Sriboonruang, P. (2022, July 24). A review of artificial intelligence (AI) in education during the digital era. Advance Knowledge for Executives, 1(1), No. 3, 1–9.  https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4160798

Lin, H., & Chen, Q. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) -integrated educational applications and college students’ creativity and academic emotions: Students and teachers’ perceptions and attitudes. BMC Psychology, 12, 487. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40359-024-01979-0

Luckin, R., & Holmes, W. (2016). Intelligence unleashed: An argument for AI in education. Pearson. https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/edu.google.com/en//pdfs/Intelligence-Unleashed-Publication.pdf

Schiff, D. (2021). Education for AI, not AI for education: The role of education and ethics in national AI policy strategies. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40593-021-00270-2

As demand for specialty-skilled workers grows in an evolving workforce, targeted educational programs (i.e., certificates and microcredentials) have emerged as essential tools to meet employers' expectations for job-ready graduates. These programs validate specific career skills, bridging the gap between academic theory and practical application, and creating candidates who can quickly integrate into new roles (Gauthier, 2020). Despite their growing popularity, little work has explored the value of short psychology-based training experiences.

Targeted educational experiences offer flexible learning opportunities tailored to industry needs, making them invaluable for bridging skill gaps (Varadarajan et al., 2023). Skills-based hiring, supported by microcredentials and certificates, aligns job seekers' qualifications with industry demands (Bowles & Raimondi, 2023). These programs also create accessible pathways for marginalized groups, offering increased career opportunities (Burke et al., 2022).

In psychology, targeted educational experiences like certificates and microcredentials equip graduates with job-ready skills that complement theoretical knowledge. Jentzsch (2023) highlights how microcredentials foster inclusive professional communities by validating diverse skills and supporting lifelong learning. For psychology graduates, these programs provide specialized training in client communication, data analysis, and applied interventions for roles in counseling, research, consulting, and community health.

Microcredentials, particularly digital badges, provide an alternative path in higher education through flexible, tech-driven learning models (Ahsan et al., 2023). Coursera (2024) reports that 76% of institutions plan to implement or expand microcredential programs. These models are especially relevant in psychology, allowing students to demonstrate competencies in areas like neuropsychological assessment and behavioral health technologies. In a postpandemic world, microcredentials are critical for reskilling and lifelong learning (Tamoliune et al., 2023). Mearian (2024) adds that combining AI tools with microcredentials can address hiring biases by offering standardized measures of skills.

Despite their benefits, brief, targeted training faces challenges. Thi Ngoc Ha et al. (2022) point out that the long-term viability of these programs is unclear. Viano (2024) notes that access to electronic devices and Wi-Fi can be barriers. Ascione (2024) highlights institutional challenges, such as competition from employer-driven credentials. These issues underline the need for further exploration of targeted training tailored to psychology professionals' demands. Collaboration between academia and industry is essential to ensure these programs are effective and equitable.

Brief, targeted training programs like certificates and microcredentials may offer psychology graduates innovative pathways to showcase workforce readiness and integrate psychological knowledge into broader careers. Additionally, these programs could enhance the value of psychology professionals as more of the workforce is exposed to psychological science, application, and technology.

References

Ahsan, K., Akbar, S., Kam, B., & Abdulrahman, M. D. (2023). Implementation of micro-credentials in higher education: A systematic literature review. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 13505–13540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11739-z

Ascione, L. eCampus News. (2024, November 20). Higher-ed leaders see microcredentials as the future. eCampus News. https://www.ecampusnews.com/teaching-learning/2024/11/20/higher-ed-leaders-microcredentials-future/

Bowles, J., & Raimondi, E. (2023). 5 steps for expanding skills-based hiring in New York City (E. Dvorkin & D. Block, Eds.). Center for an Urban Future. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep52734

Burke, C., Winstanley, S., & MacKinnon, J. (2022). Net-zero education and training. In C. Burke, S. Winstanley, & J. MacKinnon (Eds.), Equitable net-zero: Recommendations for advancing gender equity in Alberta’s energy transition (pp. 13–23). Pembina Institute. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep43263.6

Coursera. (2024). Micro-credentials impact report 2024: U.S. edition [eBook]. Coursera, Inc. https://www.coursera.org

Gauthier, T. (2020). The value of microcredentials: The employer’s perspective. Journal of Competency-Based Education, 5(2), e01209. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1209

Jentzsch, T. H. (2023). Creating an inclusive community of practice with micro-credentials https://ucark.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/creating-inclusive-community-practice-with-micro/docview/2791550378/se-2?accountid=10017

Mearian, L. (2024, May 29). Job seekers and hiring managers depend on AI: At what cost to truth and fairness? Computerworld, 1. https://www.computerworld.com/article/2128296/job-seekers-and-hiring-managers-depend-on-ai-but-at-what-cost-to-truth-and-fairness.html

Tamoliune, G., Greenspon, R., Tereseviciene, M., Volungeviciene, A., Trepule, E., & Dauksiene, E. (2023). Exploring the potential of micro-credentials: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Education, 7, 1006811. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.1006811

Thi Ngoc Ha, N., Spittle, M., Watt, A., & Van Dyke, N. (2022): A systematic literature review of micro-credentials in higher education: A non-zero-sum game, Higher Education Research & Development, 42(6), 1527–1548. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2022.2146061

Varadarajan, S., Koh, J. H. L., & Daniel, B. K. (2023). A systematic review of the opportunities and challenges of micro-credentials for multiple stakeholders: Learners, employers, higher education institutions and government. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(13). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00381-x

Viano, A. (2024, September 9). What’s new with microcredentials in higher education? Technology Solutions That Drive Education. https://edtechmagazine.com/higher/article/2023/04/whats-new-microcredentials-higher-education-perfcon

Psychology is one of the top three most popular majors for college first-year students, with 140,711 bachelor’s degrees awarded in 2023 (Reynolds, 2023; American Psychological Association, 2024). With a projected rise in demand for psychology-related services, employment for those with undergraduate psychology degrees is expected to grow (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). However, despite how coveted these degrees are becoming, many students feel unprepared for the workforce (Appleby et al., 2019).

Over the past several years, the American Psychological Association (APA) has created several resources to help students and programs identify essential career readiness skills. The “Skillful Psychology Student” (Naufel et al., 2018) identifies 17 critical skills organized into five main themes: Cognitive, Communication, Personal, Social, and Technological (Naufel, 2019). Additionally, the APA Board of Educational Affairs Task Force on Psychology Major Competencies (2023) outlined five core learning outcomes and program expectations: (a) Content Knowledge and Applications, (b) Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking, (c) Values in Psychological Science, (d) Communication, Psychological Literacy and Technology Skills, and (e) Personal and Professional Development.

Although external groups like the APA can develop recommendations, preparing students for future professional impact begins with the program structure. Since the program structure determines the undergraduate experience, program faculty are ultimately responsible for creating opportunities for students to develop core professional skills. For example, programs can focus on a wide range of educational opportunities where students gain skills in child psychology, cognitive functioning, human interactions, reading, writing, communication, and perspective-taking in preparation to have an impact in real estate, human resources, healthcare, law enforcement, and education (Larsen, 2022).

Individual faculty can also enhance skill development by explicitly emphasizing the skills students are developing (Denton, 2024). Given how extensive a psychology degree can be, professors need to highlight the skills that students refine in their courses that will help them in their fields of study and future endeavors. A heavy emphasis and recognition of necessary life and professional skills has been shown to increase student success (Wickline et al., 2024).

We can continue to develop more opportunities for psychology students to develop essential personal and professional skills. Many faculty members continue to find it challenging to help their students navigate through professional expectations while also adapting to changes in the field. Some faculty suggest creating a psychology overview and creating courses in career planning (Roscoe & McMahan, 2014). Others propose that education within the psychology field should be consistently personalized to the demands of the professional market, which they argue will steadily improve the overall quality of student experiences (Maragakis et al., 2020).

References

American Psychological Association. (2024). CWS data tool: Degrees in psychology. https://www.apa.org/workforce/data-tools/degrees-psychology

APA Board of Educational Affairs Task Force on Psychology Major Competencies. (2023). APA guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major. American Psychological Association.

Appleby, D. C., Young, J., Kirk, J. V., Rudmann, J., Naufel, K. Z., Spencer, S. M., Hettich, P., Carducci, B. J., & Richmond, A. S. (2019, February). The skillful psychology student: Skills you will need to succeed in the 21st-Century workplace. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psn/2019/02/skillful-student

Denton, A. W. (2024, February 26). The market-ready psychology major: Skills-focused resources for psychology instructors. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psychology-teacher-network/introductory-psychology/market-ready

Larsen, K. (2022, March 14). 48 jobs you can get with a psychology degree. Mid-Atlantic Christian University. https://www.macuniversity.edu/48-jobs-you-can-get-with-a-psychology-degree/#gref

Maragakis, A., LaLonde, L., Vriesman, M., & Orkopoulou, E. (2020). Using a systematic approach to improve undergraduate training in psychology. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6(2), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000227

Naufel, K. Z., Appleby, D. C., Young, J., Van Kirk, J. F., Spencer, S. M., Rudmann, J., Carducci, B. J., Hettich., P., & Richmond, A. S. (2018). The skillful psychology student: Prepared for success in the 21st century workplace.  https://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/transferable-skills.pdf

Naufel, K. Z., Spencer, S. M., Appleby, D. C., Richmond, A. S., Rudmann, J., Kirk, J. V., Young, J., Carducci, B. J., & Hettich, P. (2019, March). The skillful psychology student: How to empower students with workforce-ready skills by teaching psychology. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2019/03/workforce-ready-skills

Reynolds, P. (2023, January 9). Why choose psychology as your college major. Harvard Summer School. https://summer.harvard.edu/blog/why-choose-psychology-as-your-college-major/

Roscoe, L. J., & McMahan, E. A. (2014). Outcomes of introduction to the psychology major. Teaching of Psychology, 41(2), 110–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628314530340

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2018, April 13). Psychologists: Occupational Outlook Handbook: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm#tab-6

Wickline, V. B., Capeles, K., Morris, H., Warden, A., Appleby, K., & Appleby, D. C. (2024). Day 1 lesson plan—Discuss skills. Repeat. Repeat. Repeat. (or: How a focus on professional skills impacts psychology statistics students’ course, instructor, and self-perceptions). Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000279

Determining essential content for introductory psychology is challenging due to the discipline’s breadth and variability. For instance, a review of five popular introductory psychology textbooks revealed significant discrepancies: While the books ranged from 567 to 896 pages and covered 951 to 1,654 key terms, only 154 terms were shared across all texts (Slade & Gurung, 2022; Slade et al., 2023). This ambiguity allows programs to tailor unique learning experiences but creates challenges for program evaluators, graduate educators, and employers assessing students' foundational knowledge.

The American Psychological Association's (APA) Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI) provides a framework for creating psychology programs by promoting student-centered learning objectives and evidence-based teaching practices. The IPI emphasizes that introductory psychology should be a transformative course to help students develop academic, career, and personal skills (American Psychological Association, 2018). Thoughtfully designed courses help students with beneficial study skills (retrieval practice, space recognition), leading to a deeper understanding of course content. Introductory psychology experiences also foster essential career skills, such as critical thinking and scientific literacy, as well as beneficial life abilities like self-regulation and ethical decision-making (American Psychological Association, 2018).

As part of the IP course recommendations, the APA IPI incorporates the selection of student learning outcomes (SLOs) that emphasize essential integrative themes in psychological science and highlight crucial aspects of human behavior (Gurung & Neufeld, 2021). These themes are encompassed within the Pillar Model, which underscores the importance of teaching the foundational principles of scientific inquiry. This integrative model also covers various branches of psychology, including biological, cognitive, developmental, social, personality, and mental and physical health.

Informed by the APA’s IPI, the College Board launched a redesigned Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology course curriculum for the 2024–25 academic year (College Board, n.d.). The AP Psychology course and exam focus on five key themes: biological bases of behavior, cognition, development and learning, social and personality psychology, and mental and physical health. The revised exam format includes fewer multiple-choice questions and updated free-response questions to foster a deeper understanding of psychological principles (American Psychological Association, 2018). An important aspect of the redesigned curriculum is an increased emphasis on teaching scientific literacy and critical thinking about psychology.

These two initiatives help calibrate introductory psychology experiences by improving the consistency and quality of introductory psychology. They also provide frameworks for programs to use in creating undergraduate curriculums customized to the needs of their psychology majors and the strengths of their faculty.

References

American Psychological Association. (2018). The APA introductory psychology initiative. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/introductory-psychology-initiative

College Board. (n.d.). AP psychology revisions for 2024–25. AP Central. https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-psychology/revisions-2024-25

Gurung, R. A. R., & Neufeld, G. (2021, November 29). Selecting content for introductory psychology: Recommendations from the APA Introductory Psychology Initiative. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psychology-teacher-network/introductory-psychology/selecting-content

Slade, J. J., & Gurung, R. A. R. (2022). Not quite on the same page: Comparing key terms in introductory psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 51(3), 285–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/00986283221111749

Slade, J. J., Byers, S. M., & Gurung, R. A. R. (2023). Introductory psychology textbooks (still) more different than alike. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000365

In September 2023, the American Psychological Association (APA) hosted a summit to address the need for targeted community interventions, marking a shift from individual treatments to broader societal solutions (Evans, 2024). This expanded view highlights how better integrating the bio-enviro-psycho-socio-cultural perspective (Charlton et. al., 2024) in undergraduate psychology can play a pivotal role in preparing students to contribute to such systems-level interventions. By understanding the interplay of biological, environmental, psychological, social, and cultural factors, students can develop a holistic approach to psychological science, application, and technology (this can be compared to a shift away from main effects to interactions in undergraduate psychology teaching).

Population-Level Interventions: A Shift in Mental Health Strategy

Psychologist Ken Dodge of Duke University highlights the limitations of traditional, individual-focused mental health treatments for youth. Although effective on a case-by-case basis, these approaches fail to address systemic mental health challenges. Dodge advocates for community-level interventions emphasizing prevention and societal change, such as parental support programs, access to green spaces, and destigmatization of help-seeking (Dodge, 2024).

Targeted interventions hold promise for vulnerable populations such as those with low socioeconomic status or from historically marginalized communities. These programs aim to address specific mental health challenges early, laying the groundwork for broader societal change. However, their success depends on integrating these efforts within a larger framework of systemic reform.

A Comprehensive Approach: Bottom-Up, Top-Down, and Systems Change

The APA proposes a “three-prong plan” encompassing bottom-up, top-down, and systems-level strategies:

• Bottom-Up: Strengthen evidence-based interventions, adapting them to diverse cultural contexts without sacrificing effectiveness (Skinner et al., 2023).
• Top-Down: Create supportive environments for children’s development through community interventions like paid parental leave and accessible mental health education.
• Systems Change: Develop a universal framework for children’s mental health, akin to coordinated systems in healthcare and education. This includes integrated data systems for tracking outcomes and holding communities accountable.

A curriculum emphasizing the bio-enviro-psycho-social-cultural perspective prepares students to engage with this three-level approach. For example, understanding the impact of cultural context on behavior enhances the adaptation of interventions, while an understanding of how biological, environmental, and social factors influence behavior allows for the creation of prevention and treatment approaches.

Moving From Positive Thinking to Positive Action

The shift in mental health discourse requires actionable steps. Advocacy, psychoeducation, and system-level reforms go beyond changing mindsets, aligning with the APA’s goal of population-level improvements. Research consistently shows that community-wide interventions are more effective than individual treatments in reducing the prevalence of mental health disorders (Dodge et al., 2024).

Measuring Success: Accountability and Collaboration

Ken Dodge identifies three priorities for achieving the APA’s goals: measurement, evaluation, and accountability. Annual reports on children’s mental health, similar to unemployment rates, could guide policy and interventions. Long-term tracking rooted in developmental science is critical for evaluating outcomes, while public accountability ensures sustained progress.

Looking Ahead

Integrating insights from the APA’s population-level initiatives into undergraduate psychology education can better prepare students to tackle real-world challenges. A curriculum grounded in the bio-enviro-psycho-social-cultural perspective equips students with the tools to think broadly and embrace systemic solutions. This preparation ensures the next generation of psychological scientists and practitioners is ready to lead transformational change. This thematic exploration of undergraduate psychology invites us to envision a future where psychological science, application, and technology can enhance individual and societal well-being.

References

Charlton, S. R., Sobel, K., & Sobel, S. (2024). Psychology: The science of who we are (4th Ed.). McMillan Learning.

Dodge, K. (2024). Improving population mental health and reducing disparities [Transcript]. https://www.apa.org/science/programs/population-health-science-summit/improving-transcript.pdf

Dodge, K. A., Prinstein, M. J., Evans, A. C., Ahuvia, I. L., Alvarez, K., Beidas, R. S., Brown, A. J., Cuijpers, P., Denton, E.-g., Hoagwood, K. E., Johnson, C., Kazdin, A. E., McDanal, R., Metzger, I. W., Rowley, S. N., Schleider, J., & Shaw, D. S. (2024). Population mental health science: Guiding principles and initial agenda. American Psychologist, 79(6), 805–823. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001334

Evans, A. C. Jr. (2024, September 1). Embracing a population health approach to improving youth mental health. Monitor on Psychology, 55(6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2024/09/youth-mental-health

Skinner, A., Occhipinti, J., Song, Y. J. C., & Hickie, I. B. (2023). Population-level effectiveness of alternative approaches to preventing mental disorders in adolescents and young adults. Scientific Reports, 13(1), Article 47322. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47322-2

Psychedelics, long stigmatized and misunderstood, are undergoing a renaissance in modern therapy. What was once considered the domain of counterculture is now the subject of rigorous scientific investigation, offering potential breakthroughs in mental health treatment. Substances like psilocybin, MDMA, and ketamine are at the forefront of this emerging field, with research demonstrating their efficacy in treating conditions such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and addiction. This article explores the growing role of psychedelics in modern therapy, their therapeutic potential, and the ethical and cultural considerations involved in their use.

A Brief History of Psychedelics in Medicine

Psychedelics have a long history of use in various cultures, particularly among Indigenous Peoples who employ these substances in healing rituals and spiritual practices. However, the Western medical community began exploring their therapeutic potential in the mid-20th century. LSD, discovered in 1938 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, was used experimentally to treat alcoholism, depression, and anxiety in the 1950s and 1960s. Psilocybin, the active compound in magic mushrooms, followed a similar path, showing promise in clinical settings for alleviating mental health issues.

Despite the initial optimism, the political and cultural backlash against the countercultural movements of the 1960s led to the prohibition of these substances. The U.S. Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified most psychedelics as Schedule I drugs, effectively halting research for decades. However, beginning in the late 1990s, a resurgence in interest, led by a combination of scientific curiosity and pressing public health needs, reignited clinical studies. Today, psychedelics are being re-examined for their therapeutic benefits, particularly for individuals who have not responded to traditional treatments.

The Science of Psychedelics in Therapy

Psychedelics operate by interacting with serotonin receptors in the brain, particularly the 5-HT2A receptor, which plays a role in mood, perception, and cognition. These substances induce altered states of consciousness, often described as mystical or transcendent experiences, which can have lasting positive effects on mental health. What sets psychedelics apart from conventional psychiatric medications is their ability to facilitate profound psychological insights and emotional breakthroughs in just one or a few sessions, often under the guidance of trained therapists.

In clinical settings, psychedelics are typically used in conjunction with psychotherapy. This approach is sometimes referred to as “psychedelic-assisted therapy” (PAT). The drug serves as a catalyst for therapeutic work, allowing patients to explore repressed emotions, traumas, or entrenched thought patterns with greater openness and introspection. MDMA, for example, has been shown to be effective in treating PTSD by enabling individuals to confront traumatic memories without being overwhelmed by fear or anxiety. In clinical trials, patients who underwent MDMA-assisted therapy experienced significant reductions in PTSD symptoms, with some achieving full remission (Mithoefer et al., 2011).

Similarly, psilocybin has been studied for its potential to alleviate depression, particularly treatment-resistant depression. Research conducted at institutions like Johns Hopkins University and Imperial College London has demonstrated that psilocybin-assisted therapy can produce rapid and sustained improvements in mood and emotional well-being. Participants often describe the experience as one of deep interconnectedness, where they gain new perspectives on their lives and problems, leading to lasting behavioral changes (Davis et al., 2021).

Ketamine, although not a traditional psychedelic, is another substance gaining traction in modern therapy. It has been used for decades as an anesthetic but has recently emerged as a fast-acting treatment for depression, particularly in cases where other medications have failed. Ketamine works by blocking NMDA receptors in the brain, which leads to increased synaptic plasticity and the formation of new neural connections. Unlike traditional antidepressants, which can take weeks to take effect, ketamine often provides relief within hours, making it a valuable tool for patients in acute distress (Zarate et al., 2006).

The Promise of Psychedelics for Mental Health

One of the most compelling aspects of psychedelic-assisted therapy is its potential to address mental health conditions that have proven resistant to conventional treatments. For individuals with PTSD, depression, or addiction, psychedelics offer new hope. Traditional approaches, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), while effective for many, do not work for everyone. A significant percentage of patients fail to respond to these treatments, leading researchers to explore alternative options.

Psychedelics have shown promise in reducing symptoms and improving quality of life for these individuals. In the case of addiction, substances like psilocybin and ibogaine are being investigated for their ability to disrupt addictive behaviors by helping individuals confront the root causes of their dependencies. For depression, psilocybin and ketamine can offer rapid symptom relief, with some studies showing that a single dose can provide weeks or even months of improvement (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016).

Furthermore, the experiential nature of psychedelic therapy means that patients often feel more engaged in their treatment. The altered states of consciousness induced by these substances can lead to profound personal insights, which, when combined with therapeutic support, result in meaningful and lasting change. Unlike traditional medications, which are taken daily and act primarily as symptom suppressors, psychedelics work to address underlying psychological issues, offering the potential for deeper healing.

Ethical and Cultural Considerations

As psychedelics become more integrated into modern therapy, it is essential to consider the ethical and cultural implications of their use. Many of these substances have deep roots in Indigenous cultures, used in sacred rituals for healing and spiritual growth. The growing interest in psychedelics within Western medicine raises questions about cultural appropriation and the commodification of traditional knowledge.

To ensure ethical use, it is crucial to honor the cultural origins of these substances and involve Indigenous voices in the conversation. Organizations like the Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative and the Native American Church are working to preserve access to peyote for Indigenous communities while educating the public about its traditional significance. Similarly, integrating traditional healing practices with modern therapeutic frameworks must be done thoughtfully and with respect for cultural sovereignty (Tupper, 2008).

Another ethical concern is the accessibility of psychedelic therapies. Currently, many of these treatments are conducted in controlled, research-based settings, which can be expensive and difficult to access. As psychedelics move toward broader legalization and acceptance, it will be important to ensure that these therapies are available to all who need them, regardless of socioeconomic status (Nutt et al., 2013).

Conclusion

Psychedelics are re-emerging as powerful tools in the treatment of mental health conditions. As research continues to validate their effectiveness, these substances could revolutionize how we approach therapy, offering new hope to individuals with conditions like PTSD, depression, and addiction. However, as we integrate psychedelics into modern medicine, it is essential to approach their use with care, ensuring ethical practices that honor their cultural significance while making them accessible to those in need. The future of psychedelics in therapy is bright, but it requires thoughtful stewardship to realize its full potential.

References

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J., Day, C. M. J., Erritzoe, D., Kaelen, M., Bloomfield, M., Rickard, J. A., Forbes, B., Feilding, A., Taylor, D., Pilling, S., Curran, V., H., & Nutt, D. J.(2016). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: An open-label feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(7), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30065-7

Davis, A. K., Barrett, F. S., May, D. G., Cosimano, M. P., Sepeda, N. D., Johnson, M. W., Finan, P. H., & Griffiths, R. R. (2021). Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(5), 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.328

Mithoefer, M. C., et al. (2011). MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(3), 439–-452. https://doi.org/10.1177/026988110701800406

Nutt, D., King, L. A., & Nichols, D. E. (2013). Effects of Schedule I drug laws on neuroscience research and treatment innovation. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(8), 749–755. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00028-5

Tupper, K. W. (2008). The globalization of ayahuasca: Harm reduction or benefit maximization? International Journal of Drug Policy, 19(1), 15–-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.09.005

Zarate, C. A., Singh, J. B., Carlson, P. J., Brutsche, N. E., Ameli, R., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Charney, D. S., & Manji, H. K.(2006). A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(8), 856–-864. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.8.856

Kat Poteet, an undergraduate psychology student at Capella University, is passionate about cultural preservation, Indigenous sovereignty, and holistic mental health solutions. She enjoys reading, meditation, and leading Eso Holos, a community she founded to connect like-minded individuals.

Note: This article is intended for educational and entertainment purposes. Diagnosis of psychological disorders can only be made by a licensed mental health practitioner.

Frank Gallagher of the popular TV show Shameless is known for being a neglectful, alcoholic father with little regard for his family. Shameless is a fictional show that follows a family through the troubles of living on the South Side of Chicago. Frank Gallagher, a father of six, is often not at home to take care of the family and is instead engaging in destructive alcoholic behavior. Though much of his behavior can be attributed to his alcoholism, there is likely more than meets the eye in regard to his psychopathology. According to the trait specified approach to personality disorders of the DSM-5, one must analyze five traits: negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition, and psychoticism. Hypotheses can be made about a diagnosis for Frank Gallagher based on his behavior in the show. Based on DSM-5-TR criteria, he may be able to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder under Cluster B, a mental health disorder.

According to the DSM-5-TR, antisocial personality disorder is a mental health disorder in which someone continuously displays a disregard for others’ rights and emotions. Symptomology consists of a failure to conform to socially accepted behaviors (specifically engaging in illegal behavior), deceitfulness (including lying or scamming), a tendency to act impulsively, irritability, aggression, a disregard for the safety of self or others, and a lack of remorse associated with these actions. It is evident in the show Shameless that Frank tends to be manipulative, act impulsively, disregard or violate the rights or emotions of others, and/or have little regard for the safety of others. This article will examine these actions through the categories specified by the lens of the trait-specified approach to the DSM 5 (except for psychoticism, as Frank does not seem to display psychotic symptoms). Regarding the trait specified approach of the DSM-5-TR, Frank has high levels of antagonism, disinhibition, and some negative affectivity. However, based on his presentation in the show, antisocial personality disorder may be a viable diagnosis for him.

Firstly, Frank’s alcoholism plays a role in his disinhibition. Disinhibition is defined as the inability to control one’s behavior and tendency to act impulsively. Alcohol exacerbates what may already be a predisposition to a lack of inhibitions. His inability to stop drinking is a display of predisposition to impulsivity. He is rarely able to look after his family or keep track of a consistent schedule due to his impulsivity. He has difficulty maintaining his familial relationships, and though he occasionally expresses love for his family, he largely does not perform the actions to supplement this sentiment. He will disappear for periods of time with seemingly little to no regard for his family members.

His antagonism shows through his manipulativeness and lack of accountability. Antagonism is defined as persistent acts of rebellion. When it comes to his drinking habits or inability to support his family, he never accepts responsibility or admits to wrongdoing. Instead, he goes to great lengths to express how he is never in the wrong. For example, in Season 2, Episode 1, titled “Summertime,” Frank loses a $10,000 bet to a fellow patron at The Alibi, the local dive bar. He takes his youngest son, Liam, who was just 2 years old at the time, with him to panhandle to raise the money. Liam ends up being taken as collateral because Frank cannot pay back the money, putting Liam in danger. This manipulation of the public and disregard for the safety of his youngest son show definite signs of antagonistic traits.

Negative affectivity is the trait associated with antisocial personality disorder in which someone is predisposed to negative emotions. Though Frank does not seem to align with the negative emotions such as submissiveness, separation anxiety, depression, or insecurity, he can become excessively angry, making him seem very emotionally reactive and hostile. In Season 1, Episode 2, titled “Frank the Plank,” Frank smashes his head into his son Ian’s head, giving Ian a bloody nose, simply because Ian asked if Frank was wearing his shirt. This is one of many examples in which Frank has gotten into physical fights and is highly defensive when being accused of wrongdoing.

Frank also shows some signs of detachment. Detachment is the trait associated with a lack of emotional regard for or involvement in relationships and actions. This is mostly seen by the way he treats his family. Also in Season 1, Episode 2, Frank engages in heavy drinking behavior and subsequently goes missing. He frequently does not seem inclined to return home or provide for his family. This arguably exhibits a level of detachment as he does not feel these typical fatherly inclinations.

Antisocial personality disorder is marked by patterns of disregard for and lack of emotional connection to important relationships and actions. Frank Gallagher displays symptoms of disregard for others’ emotions, impulsivity, hostility, and endangering others as looked at through the trait-specified lens of the DSM. Though Frank does not display many symptoms of psychoticism, unless engaging in heavy drug usage, he does show symptoms associated with antisocial personality disorder related to detachment, negative affectivity, antagonism, and disinhibition. Though a full diagnosis cannot be made of this fictional character, this disorder may be a valid explanation for Frank’s actions.

Sydney Long is a junior at Tulane University pursuing a bachelor of arts in dance with a minor in psychology on a premedical track. She has been accepted to Tulane Medical School through the Creative Pre-Medical Scholars program at Tulane University.

Pets enrich and improve our lives, especially when adopted by individuals who love and appreciate them. Unfortunately, pet ownership comes with responsibilities that pet owners may not consider. When the animated movie Finding Nemo was released in 2003, many people (including myself) fell in love with the characters and were especially mesmerized by the main character, a clownfish named Nemo. As a result, a substantial increase in clownfish purchasing followed. When the sequel Finding Dory was released in 2016, the same trend was observed—a marked increase in the purchase of blue tangs as pets. Although these tropical fish can make good pets, their maintenance necessitates much preparation on the side of the owner due to how many supplies a fish needs to have. If the owners are inspired by the movies to own pet fish but are unprepared for the demands inherent to the care for these charismatic tropical fish, the fish may perish. This experience could negatively affect the owner’s well-being, emotional connection with animals, and even self-esteem if the owner feels at fault for the death of their beloved pet.

Media-Induced Desire to Adopt a Pet

Many movies, TV shows, and children’s books tend to highlight the adorable, relatable, and appealing characteristics of animals. Wilbur from Charlotte’s Web (1973) is funny and sweet, Bambi from Bambi (1942) is gentle and precious, and Pongo and Perdita from 101 Dalmatians (1961) are wonderful parents and loyal companions. Movies personify animals, providing them with human-like characteristics, motivations, emotional processes, and cognitions. In the movie Ratatouille (2007), a rat named Remy demonstrates willpower and determination as he follows his dreams to become a culinary chef. In the story of Lassie (Lassie, 1994), an intelligent Collie heroically reunites with the family she had lost. Bambi, Dumbo (Dumbo, 1941), and Simba (Lion King, 1994) face loss and grief, learn about love and friendship, and are challenged with tasks of development and maturation. The movies Finding Nemo and Finding Dory show similar themes. Nemo is portrayed as an adorable and curious fish who wants to explore the world around him, while his father’s task, to protect and secure him, is one that we can easily relate to. Dory is portrayed as a lovable and forgetful fish who goes on a journey with her close friends, Marlin and Nemo, to try and find her parents. Her journey to discover her origins, uncover her past, and develop a sense of belongingness, is one that many viewers could relate to.

The personification of animals in media represents a common human tendency to anthropomorphize animals. Anthropomorphism is the “interpretation of what is not human or personal in terms of human or personal characteristics” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). For example, one may make inferences about an animal’s experience through the projection of their own human thoughts, emotions, and intentions. In this context, “anthropomorphic explanations hamper knowledge of comparative cognition because they overemphasize human experience, and they prejudge the conclusions that we may reach through systematic research” (Domjan, 2014, pp. 309). Although anthropomorphic viewpoints tend to embellish human experiences at the expense of scientific research, some believe that the tendency to anthropomorphize correlates with empathy and, in the context of animals, interest in animal welfare issues (Urquiza-Haas et al., 2015). It is only inevitable to assume that media, which enables us to empathize with animals, will increase our interest, attraction, and desire to interact with or adopt these animals. Following the release of Finding Nemo, the sales of orange and white striped clownfish rose by 40% percent (Sohn, 2016). Although interest in blue tangs was also seen after the release of Finding Dory, “breeding tropical reef fish like blue tangs in captivity is highly challenging, leading the saltwater trade, unlike the freshwater aquarium trade, to largely trade wild-caught fishes” (Talbot, 2016). Although breeding blue tangs is preferable over having wild-caught blue tangs as pets, with the breeding being harder, the pet blue tangs are typically wild caught which is not ideal for the environment. Similar trends were seen after the release of other movies such as Hachi: A Dog’s Tale (2009) in which a loyal Akita dog waits for his deceased owner at the train station every day until his very last breath; or the recent film Dog (2022) in which Channing Tatum’s character bonds with a belgian malinois on their shared path to recovery. Unfortunately, both movies do not cover the challenges inherent to the ownership of these breeds (Little, 2022).

I have always wanted pets, but I have never owned tropical fish (nor did I have any knowledge of the care required to keep them). For instance, clownfish and blue tangs require saltwater environments, which necessitate having the correct amount of salt in the water—too much or little salinity is bad for saltwater fish. Because of heavy evaporation of fresh water due to high-intensity lights, a steady supply of fresh Reverse Osmosis (RODI) water must be added daily, usually via a separate drip system, in order to keep salinity consistent. New saltwater must be made regularly for water changes to export nitrates and other unwanted compounds, and the tank and filters need to be cleaned properly. Furthermore, saltwater fish must be kept between 76 to 82 °F, which means that owners should own aquarium heaters and also a separate generator or other independent power source in order to prepare for occasional house-wide electricity and/or HVAC failures; owners often only have a matter of hours to set up their “backup system” before shifting temperatures will result in an aquarium-wide collapse. Although behavioral ecologists recommend against ownership of blue tangs, it is recommended by behavioral ecologist Culum Brown that fish owners start with a freshwater fish tank and acquire the knowledge and experience needed to keep fish healthy (King, 2016) before considering saltwater tanks.

The Drawbacks of Having a Pet Fish

Maintaining a fish aquarium can be an enjoyable experience, but it is also a commitment, which requires hard work (e.g., monitoring water quality, performing water changes, providing time-consuming, and quite costly repairs, etc.) that parents and children may not be aware of. If unprepared for the task, owners may lose interest in caring for the aquarium (Miller, 2023), leading to possible animal neglect. Because individuals commonly form deep emotional attachments to their pets, the pet’s death may be traumatic. Pet deaths are associated with subsequent mental health difficulties and “children exposed to the death of a pet, whether that pet resided in their household or not, had psychopathology symptoms scores that were slightly higher than their peers who did not experience a pet death” (Crawford et al., 2021). Losing a pet is hard on anyone, especially when they spend significant time and effort taking care of it. Following the loss of a clownfish or blue tang fish, the perception Finding Nemo and Finding Dory may change from a fun movie to a painful reminder of a pet that couldn’t be properly taken care of.

Conclusion

The purpose of this article is not to discourage people from adopting or breeding a pet fish but rather to provide encouragement to make an informed decision. Before purchasing these charismatic fish on a whim after viewing Finding Nemo or Finding Dory, one should study the breed’s requirements and commit to assuming the responsibility for the fish’s proper care. Although fish are generally considered good “starter pets,” the reality is that they can require a lot more work than many may realize. Taking the time to learn how to prepare (“just keep swimming!”) has many benefits. With the proper knowledge and experience, people can become successful fish owners and with time, patience, and proper guidance, children can become successful fish owners too. Like Nemo, children who learn to responsibly care for pets can experience self-reliance, self-efficacy, independence, and autonomy.

References

Crawford, K. M., Zhu, Y., Davis, K. A., Ernst, S., Jacobsson, K., Nishimi, K., Smith, A. D. A. C., & Dunn, E. C. (2021). The mental health effects of pet death during childhood: Is it better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(10), 1547–1558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01594-5     

Domjan, M. P. (2014). The principles of learning and behavior (7th ed.). Cengage Learning US. https://reader.yuzu.com/books/9781305142671  

Kimura, Y., Kawabata, H., & Maezawa, M. (2014). Frequency of neurotic symptoms shortly after the death of a pet. The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 76(4), 499–502. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.13-0231  

King, B. J. (2016, June 3). Please, let’s not find Dory. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2016/06/03/480556852/please-lets-not-find-dory  

Little, R. (2022). Dog expert offers tips on Belgian Malinois as a pet after movie “Dog” released in theaters. WTRF.com. https://www.wtrf.com/entertainment-news/dog-expert-offers-tips-on-belgian-malinois-as-a-pet-after-movie-dog-released-in-theaters/  

Miller, K. (2023, August 15). The Pros and cons of starting a home aquarium. Life in a House. https://www.lifeinahouse.net/the-pros-and-cons-of-starting-a-home-aquarium/  

Sohn, E. (2016, May 3). Breeding Dory. Hakai Magazine. https://hakaimagazine.com/features/breeding-dory/  

Talbot, R. (2016, July 20). “Dory” bred in captivity for first time. Animals. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/wildlife-blue-tang-aquarium-trade  

Urquiza-Haas, E. G., & Kotrschal, K. (2015). The mind behind anthropomorphic thinking: Attribution of mental states to other species. Animal Behavior, 109(2015), 167–176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.08.011  

Angela Denise Donegan is an undergraduate senior at St. Francis University with a major in aquarium and zoo science and minors in psychology and biological diving. Although she has a love of animals, she knows that is important to have the right knowledge to care for them. She has interned at Northpaws Animal Hospital, Valewood Farms, and the Rosamond Gifford Zoo. She has worked in the Marine Lab at St. Francis for all 4 years and plans to work at an aquarium or zoo as a full-time career.

The long-awaited Inside Out 2 has finally been released and I have to say I would not have appreciated this movie before as much as I do now while studying psychology. I loved seeing the portrayal of how our emotions become more complex as we grow up and go through life changes. The film introduces more complex emotions like anxiety, envy, embarrassment, and ennui compared to simpler emotions such as joy, anger, sadness, disgust and fear. I understand the movie on a deep level, being able to reflect on my own personal life experiences and identifying when I, too, felt how Riley did during the movie. Riley’s friends went away, and she was determined to fit in and make the hockey team, pushing her emotions to the limit and bringing on a case of anxiety.

In the first Inside Out movie, the character (and emotion) Joy learns that suppressing emotions like sadness does not always lead to healthy outcomes and learns that memories have a lot of emotional aspects to them. In the second movie, new emotions are introduced, and Joy is trying to stay open-minded from her experience with suppressing sadness, but is soon kicked out of the headquarters by Anxiety who’s trying to do what’s best for Riley.

The portrayal of anxiety in the movie is a creative way of teaching kids at an early age about the concept of anxiety and how it feels when it controls us. The film points out the difference between fear, which is portrayed in the movie as “things we can see,” and anxiety, which is future-based fear or “things we cannot see.” Inside Out 2 doesn’t depict Anxiety as a villain or a negative emotion, but rather shows that she is just trying to help Riley by planning for the future. This framework shows children that anxiety is a healthy emotion, but that too much of it can lead to disasters and feelings of spiraling out of control. The buildup of Anxiety taking over throughout the plot was slow, starting out small by Riley making subtle changes like choosing her new friends over her old friends in her hockey camp. Riley ends up becoming a new person and losing values like honesty and kindness which is demonstrated when she breaks into her coach’s office and hurts her friend during the game. Anxiety doesn’t just make Riley feel uncomfortable but also causes her to lose sight of her personality and values, showing that people can change when they are in a state of anxiety. Anxiety can cause people to act in ways that do not correspond with their normal behaviors, in hopes of securing happiness in the future.

In the end, we see Joy incorporating Anxiety’s expertise to help Riley prepare for her test without letting her get out of control with thoughts about things she can’t control at the moment. This scene reiterates that Anxiety is not our enemy, but rather a healthy emotion to have as it helps us prepare for the future. Inside Out 2 comically shows anxiety having her own relaxation corner for when she herself feels anxious, aiming to symbolize how we all need a break and to take time out for our own care.

I felt teary-eyed watching the movie as I, too, have experienced what Riley was going through. I remember studying for exams and pulling all-nighters in high school feeling the worry and anxiety that comes with applying to universities. The portrayal of a panic attack in the movie with the feeling of being unable to breathe, tearing up, heart racing, and feeling of disconnection from our surroundings felt all too real as I reflected back on my experiences with panic attacks. Having learned from those past experiences, I loved the character of Anxiety because I know now that she is not a villain or a bad emotion to have, but just like us, Anxiety also needs to be taken care of. Anytime I start to feel anxious now, I imagine the Anxiety in my head being frozen from the pressure and it reminds me to take a step back and breathe.

Without realizing it, kids are being made aware of mental health issues like anxiety disorders, which can take over our lives if not contained properly. Inside Out has the ability to teach kids to be proactive with their mental health and take steps to avoid future consequences. Showing someone’s internal processes has the capacity to help children be more open-minded and compassionate towards each other because they can better understand what someone might be going through. The movie has raised awareness about anxiety, destigmatizing it as a topic, which can help children and adults deal with anxiety more confidently and head-on.

Ayra Irfan is currently a third-year psychology major at Rochester Institute of Technology in Dubai. She developed a passion for psychology in high school and has loved it ever since. She hopes to pursue a career in cognitive and behavioral psychology and learn more about the field!

As social media becomes more embedded in daily life, its impact on behavior and mental health is increasingly evident. This is especially true for women, where evidence suggests social media use increases eating disorders and body dysmorphia as well as decreased self-esteem (Dollimore et al., 2024).

Research shows several concerning outcomes regarding social media and women’s self-esteem. First, girls and women may experience increased anxiety and eating disorders due to fear of missing out, which worsens when access to social media is restricted, a common strategy for mitigating negative impacts (Bissell & Chou, 2024). Second, college women with high appearance-related social media consciousness (ASMC) report higher depression and lower body esteem with increased social media use (Choukas-Bradley et al., 2019). Third, disordered eating becomes more prevalent as women compare their body image to social media posts (Choukas-Bradley, 2020). Hogue and Mills (2019) similarly noted that women and girls feel worse about themselves when comparing with friends and peers online.

The widespread influence of social media has formed a pervasive culture of comparison among women (Pedalino & Camerini, 2022). Celebrity posts, often featuring sexualized images, significantly influence women and girls, leading to decreased self-confidence (Skowronski et al., 2021). Kim Kardashian’s large presence, for example, exerts a notable impact on girls and women (Pedalino & Camerini, 2022). Additionally, Maheux et al. (2024) found that concerns about appearance transfer between online and offline spaces, with social media reinforcing body image issues in daily life. These effects extend beyond body image, affecting communication and contributing to negative mental health outcomes (Li & Zhuo, 2023). In 2016, CBS News reported on how social media has significantly impacted young teenage girls' self-esteem, shifting comparisons from celebrities to friends and colleagues (CBS News, 2016).

Fortunately, there are strategies for addressing the negative self-esteem effects associated with social media usage. Current evidence suggests direct strategies are: (a) setting boundaries, (b) curating feeds to include positive influences, and (c) engaging in offline activities that enrich our lives and connections (Alejo, 2023). Social media fasts can also be useful. Egamulin (2024) found that a one-week social media break improved self-esteem and body-esteem among women. Similarly, Alejo (2023) reported that a three-day break from social media led to greater self-compassion in girls. These studies suggest that the negative impacts of social media on self-esteem can be reversed and managed.

As social media continues to evolve, understanding its psychological effects and developing strategies for healthier engagement are crucial. When used correctly, social media can enhance self-esteem and strengthen real-life relationships.

References

Alejo, A. (2023, February 28). Social media fasting benefits young women and girls, finds Colorado Study. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/colorado/news/social-media-fasting-benefits-young-women-and-girls-finds-colorado-study/?intcid=CNM-00-10abd1h

Bissell, K., & Chou, S. (2024). Living for the likes: Social media use, fear of missing out, and body and life satisfaction in women. Psychology of Popular Media, 13(3), 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000507

CBS News. (2016). Living in live time: Social media’s impact on girls. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/social-media-use-teens/?intcid=CNM-00-10abd1h

Choukas-Bradley, S., Nesi, J., Widman, L., & Galla, B. M. (2020). The appearance-related social media consciousness scale: Development and validation with adolescents. Body Image, 33, 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.017

Choukas-Bradley, S., Nesi, J., Widman, L., & Higgins, M. K. (2019). Camera-ready: Young women’s appearance-related social media consciousness. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(4), 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000196

Dollimore, K., Hurst, M., Cassarly, J. A., & Bell, B. T. (2024). Cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between young student women’s experiences of everyday sexual harassment on social media and self-objectification, body shame, and personal safety anxiety. Psychology of Popular Media. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000554

Egamulin. (2024, May 1). Social-media break has huge impact on young women’s body image: York U study. News@York. https://www.yorku.ca/news/2024/04/30/social-media-break-has-huge-impact-on-young-womens-body-image-york-u-study/

Hogue, J. V., & Mills, J. S. (2019). The effects of active social media engagement with peers on body image in young women. Body Image, 28, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.11.002

Li, P., & Zhuo, Q. (2023). Emotional straying: Flux and management of women’s emotions in social media. PLOS ONE, 18(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295835

Maheux, A. J., Burnell, K., & Choukas-Bradley, S. (2024). Bidirectional associations between online and offline appearance concerns during early-to-middle adolescence. Developmental Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001795

Padalino, F., & Camerini, A.-L. (2022). Instagram use and body dissatisfaction: The mediating role of upward social comparison with peers and influencers among young females. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1543. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031543

Skowronski, M., Busching, R., & Krahé, B. (2021). Links between exposure to sexualized Instagram images and body image concerns in girls and boys. Journal of Media Psychology, 34(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000296

Chronic pain—pain that persists or recurs over the course of three months (Thomas et al., 2024) and is distinct from a typical acute pain experience (Garner, 2023)—can be debilitating, physically and psychologically (De La Rosa et al., 2023). Psychological responses to chronic pain enhance its disruptions and can be magnified by its presence (Hooten, 2016). Often, physical and psychological consequences of chronic pain increase together (Gatchel, 2004).

The mechanisms connecting chronic pain and psychological conditions are not fully understood. Hooten (2016) explored possible connections—including neural systems—between pain and decreased psychological well-being, suggesting there may be direct links between the two experiences. Garner (2023) reported that people with chronic pain were found to have unique neural activity signatures, suggesting direct neural connections between chronic pain and psychological well-being.

Because of the link with psychological well-being, chronic pain may exacerbate suicidal ideation. Lewcun and colleagues (2018) showed that pain duration was a significant predictor of suicidal ideation: The longer the pain lasted, the more suicidal ideation thoughts participants reported. This research team recommended routine screening for suicidal thoughts in patients with chronic pain.

Treating those with psychological challenges linked to chronic pain can become complicated. Managing the effects of chronic pain and PTSD evokes anxieties that result in an existential crisis about how life is going to look like with these illnesses, and in concerns about dying, (Reed, 2023). Different therapies have started to come out to fully understand and treat chronic pain and mental health together (Kleinke, 1991). Beyond understanding the link between the two, there is evidence suggesting CBT has a beneficial outcome for the patient (Morley & Williams, 2015).

As research grows around the link between mental health and chronic pain, Marshall (2022) states that researchers explored the effectiveness of Pain Reprocessing Therapy for treating chronic back pain. Ashar and colleagues (2022) states, “the brain can generate pain in the absence of injury or after an injury is healed, people can unlearn that pain.” This condition affects 20% of Americans. PRT is based on the assumption that chronic pain can last even without a physical cause due to neural pathways misfiring in the brain. Results concluded that participants were pain-free or nearly pain-free. This study reinforces the idea that therapies such as PRT could be key in transforming how pain is treated and offer hope to millions of Americans seeking an alternative to pharmaceuticals and traditional pain management. As research suggests, there is a link between mental health and chronic pain. They can be debilitating illnesses but understanding how to treat the two illnesses is becoming prevalent in today’s research.

References

Ashar, Y. K., Gordon, A., Schubiner, H., Uipi, C., Knight, K., Anderson, Z., Carlisle, J., Polisky, L., Geuter, S., Flood, T. F., Kragel, P. A., Dimidjian, S., Lumley, M. A., & Wager, T. D. (2022). Effect of pain reprocessing therapy vs Placebo and usual care for patients with chronic back pain. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669

De La Rosa, J. S., Brady, B. R., Ibrahim, M. M., Herder, K. E., Wallace, J. S., Padilla, A. R., & Vanderah, T. W. (2023). Co-occurrence of chronic pain and anxiety/depression symptoms in U.S. adults: Prevalence, functional impacts, and opportunities. Pain, 165(5), 666–673. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003056

Garner, I. (2023, May 22). Has science cracked the code on chronic pain? University of California San Francisco. https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2023/05/425386/has-science-cracked-code-chronic-pain

Gatchel, R. J. (2004). Comorbidity of chronic pain and mental health disorders: The biopsychosocial perspective. American Psychologist, 59(8), 795–805. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.59.8.795  

Hooten, W. M. (2016, June 22). Chronic pain and mental health disorders. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 91(7), 955–970. https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(16)30182-3/fulltext

Kleinke, C. L. (1991). How chronic pain patients cope with depression: Relation to treatment outcome in a multidisciplinary pain clinic. Rehabilitation Psychology, 36(4), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1037//0090-5550.36.4.207

Lewcun, B., Kennedy, T. M., Tress, J., Miller, K. S., Sherker, J., & Sherry, D. D. (2018). Predicting suicidal ideation in adolescents with chronic amplified pain: The roles of depression and pain duration. Psychological Services, 15(3), 309–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000210

Marshall, L. (2022, March 11). Unlearning pain: How psychological therapy could aid chronic pain. Alumni Association. https://www.colorado.edu/coloradan/2022/03/11/unlearning-pain-how-psychological-therapy-could-aid-chronic-pain

Morley, S., & Williams, A. (2015, April). New developments in the psychological management of chronic pain. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(4), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F070674371506000403

Reed, D. E., Williams, R. M., Engel, C. C., & Zeliadt, S. B. (2023). Introducing the integrated model of co-occurring chronic pain and posttraumatic stress disorder: Adding meaning-making and existential concepts to current theory. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001591

Thomas, M. V., van Ryckeghem, D. M., Schulz, A., Müller, R., Lambracht, K., Adermann, J., & Vögele, C. (2024). Mental disorders in chronic pain patients seeking treatment at a      tertiary pain hospital. European Journal of Health Psychology, 31(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000142

As we age, we encounter more opportunities to experience the loss of important relationships. Debra Kouremetis (2024) writing for Psychology Today, wrote “A paradox of living is that striving to age healthfully can lead to increased longevity, meaning you'll have more experiences with death the older you get.” Grieving a loss has both a physical and psychological impact.

Grief and aging are closely linked, creating a complex relationship that can impact an individual’s emotional and mental health. Thompson (2024) reported that experiencing grief can affect the pace of physical aging, including influences on memory, depression, and cellular indicators of aging. The emotional toll of grief—such as feelings of anger, apathy, or guilt—can make it more difficult to recall information, stay focused, and manage everyday tasks (Gerber, 2022). Writing for NPR, McCoy (2021) summarized this relationship as, “Grief is tied to all sorts of different brain functions we have, from being able to recall memories to taking the perspective of another person, to even things like regulating our heart rate and the experience of pain and suffering.”

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's five stages of grief—denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance—offer a useful framework for understanding the emotional impact of aging and memory loss (Tyrrell, 2023). Initially, it may not be clear how grief is increasing memory loss. According to O’Conner, “Newer methods, including neuroimaging, have observed that the greatest impact of the death of a loved one is in those who have the most severe psychological grief reactions” (O’Conner, 2019). Bereavement camps are one of many instrumental resources in addressing these challenges, as they provide structured support throughout each stage of grief (Salinas, 2021). By helping those affected by grief process with their emotions and manage cognitive difficulties, these camps play a crucial role in facilitating recovery and improving overall well-being.

Time plays a great part in growing in your grief. Reynolds and Grühn (2023) “found that individuals who experienced a recent loss reported more grief and more negative death attitudes compared to individuals who experienced a loss more than 5 years ago”. This goes to show that time does heal, grief teaches you that life goes on, and we know that time never stops for anyone. Although time passes by, you allow yourself to move on and let go of things holding you back. The knowledge in knowing that we all have a death date, and time is not stopping for us, it makes people realize the things that are truly valuable in life.

Grief can even make you age biologically. Scientists have conducted research studies proving this statement.

• Biological aging involves the gradual decline in how well your cells, tissues and organs function. For this study, researchers analyzed data on nearly 4,500 people who provided blood samples for DNA testing as part of a long-term study on health. The participants were tracked from their teenage years into adulthood. Two or more losses in adulthood were more strongly linked to accelerated biological aging than one loss, and significantly more so than no losses, results show. About 40% of participants experienced at least one loss between ages 33 and 43. (Thompson, 2024).

Understanding that grief has the ability to alter one’s cognitive abilities is crucial for developing effective strategies to support others in managing both their cognitive and emotional health while also improving their quality of life. “Acceptance involves coming to terms with one’s self and finding ways to continue living a meaningful life,” (Kessler, 2013). By understanding and working through the stages of grief, we can provide essential support to those dealing with aging and memory loss. With effective coping strategies and positive interventions, we might find ways to slow down the aging process and make life a little more manageable and more fulfilling.

References

Gerber, K., Brijnath, B., Lock, K., Bryant, C., Hills, D., & Hjorth, L. (2022). “Unprepared for the depth of my feelings” - Capturing grief in older people through research poetry. Age and Ageing, 51(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afac030

Kessler, D. (2013). Five stages of grief by Elisabeth Kubler Ross & David Kessler. Grief.com. https://grief.com/the-five-stages-of-grief/

Kouremetis, D. (2024, March 28). Aging often means losing those around us. Psychology Today. Retrieved September 15, 2024, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/raging-with-grace/202403/aging-often-means-losing-those-around-us

McCoy, B. (2021, December 20). How your brain copes with grief, and why it takes time to heal. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2021/12/20/1056741090/grief-loss-holiday-brain-healing

O’Connor, M.-F. (2019). Grief: A brief history of research on how body, mind, and brain adapt. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81(8), 731–738. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000717

Reynolds, C. M., & Grühn, D. (2023). Does time heal all wounds? An investigation of time, grief, and attitudes toward death. Death Studies, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2023.2297065

Salinas, C. L. (2021). The impact of bereavement camp for children with grief. International Journal of Play Therapy, 30(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/pla0000147

Thompson, D. (2024, July 29). Grief can truly age people, study finds. U.S. News; HeathDay. https://www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2024-07-29/grief-can-truly-age-people-study-finds

Tyrrell, P. (2023, February 26). Kubler-Ross stages of dying and subsequent models of grief. StatPearls. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507885/

Worries about money, including financial sustainability, the job market, and personal finances, are common stressors for almost all adults (American Psychological Association, 2023). However, the magnitude of these worries can be much greater for those who live in poverty, where financial concerns become major sources of distress and disruption (Cherry, 2023).

Poverty affects more than just a person's financial life. It is also a significant determinant of physical and mental health (Simon & Beder, 2018). Living in a severe state of poverty can negatively affect education, physical health, social support, and overall well-being that can last generations (Marshall Lee et al., 2022). Growing research indicates that mental health issues represent a major public health concern, with the heaviest impact falling on economically disadvantaged populations (Knifton et al., 2020).

Poverty and mental illness have been shown to interact in a negative cycle, especially in low—and middle-income countries (Lund et al., 2011). Speaking to this cycle, Ridley (2020) states:

• Poverty itself can influence cognitive function by capturing attention and taxing mental bandwidth. Mental illness may have similar effects, by capturing attention, causing excessive rumination, and distorting people’s memories and beliefs about their abilities. Such cognitive impacts could alter a range of economic decisions and outcomes, from finding jobs to saving to education… (p. 5)

As suggested by Ridley, individuals living with poverty experience negative cognitive consequences, leading them to struggle to find a job, which can lead to working jobs that, in and of themselves, worsen mental illness (Allan et al., 2022). Thus, furthering the cycle where worsening mental illness makes it difficult to earn a stable income (Tarr, 2018), unstable income leads to housing insecurity, which feeds back into further mental health challenges (Marbin et al., 2022).

This cycle can start from birth, as poverty leaves devastating impacts on children’s mental health (Resources to Recover, 2023). However, states that have implemented more antipoverty programs were shown to reduce mental health symptoms significantly in children (Knopf et al., 2023). People who have access to basic necessities like food, water, and shelter can better focus on treating their mental illnesses (Excel Psychiatry, n.d). Alleviating the stress of multigenerational poverty is going to take multilayered efforts, but it is imperative to find solutions to help end this continuous cycle (Van, L.E., 2023).

Psychologists can play a role in mitigating the cycle between poverty and mental health. Training psychologists to address social determinants on mental health with cultural humility and community-based participatory research is critical to accomplishing this goal (Woods-Jaeger et al., 2024).

References

Allan, B. A., Kim, T., & Shein, B. (2022). Underemployment and mental health: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(5), 578–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000610

American Psychological Association. (2023, November). Stress in America 2023: A nation recovering from collective trauma [Press release]. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2023/collective-trauma-recovery

Cherry, K. (2023, September 6). Understanding and preventing financial stress. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/understanding-and-preventing-financial-stress-3144546

Excel Psychiatry. (n.d). Breaking the cycle of poverty and mental health. Excel Psychiatry. https://excel-psychiatry.com/poverty-and-mental-health/

Knifton, L., & Inglis, G. (2020). Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications. BJPsych Bulletin, 44(5), 193–196. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjb.2020.78

Knopf, A. (2023). Anti‐poverty programs can improve mental health in children. Brown University Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology Update, 25(7), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpu.30784

Lund, C., De Silva, M., Plagerson, S., Cooper, S., Chisholm, D., Das, J., Knapp, M., & Patel, V. (2011). Poverty and mental disorders: Breaking the cycle in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 378(9801), 1502–1514. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22008425/

Marbin, D., Gutwinski, S., Schreiter, S., & Heinz, A. (2022). Perspectives in poverty and mental health. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.975482

Marshall Lee, E. D., Hinger, C., Lam, H., & Wood, K. A. (2022). Addressing deep poverty-related stress across multiple levels of intervention. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 32(1), 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000255

Resources to Recover. (2023, July 24). The mental health toll of poverty: Understanding challenges faced by the poor in the United States. https://www.rtor.org/2023/07/20/the-mental-health-toll-of-poverty/

Ridley, M., Rio, G., Schilbach, F., & Patel, V. (2020). Poverty, depression, and anxiety: Causal  evidence and mechanisms. Science, 370(6522). http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay0214

Simon, K., Beder, M., & Manseau, M.W. (2018). Addressing poverty and mental illness. Psychiatric Times, 35(6). https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/addressing-poverty-and-mental-illness

Tarr, P. (2018, November 19). Homelessness and mental illness: A challenge to our society. Brain and Behavior Research Foundation. https://bbrfoundation.org/blog/homelessness-and-mental-illness-challenge-our-society

Van, L. E. (2023, November 23). The three faces of poverty-related stress. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/happybytes/202311/the-three-faces-of-poverty-related-stress

Woods-Jaeger, B., Cho, B., & Briggs, E. C. (2024). Training psychologists to address social determinants of mental health. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 18(1), 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000307

Introduction: The Timeless Episode

Long before Black Mirror, The Twilight Zone graced television as the go-to sci-fi and psychological drama series. Like Black Mirror, each episode features a standalone dilemma, ranging anywhere from a computer falling in love with its creator, the Devil making a deal for one’s soul, and even a small boy with the power to cut off his entire community from the rest of the world. “The Monsters are Due on Maple Street” is the 22nd episode in Season 1 of The Twilight Zone and is regarded as one of their most popular episodes. In this episode, we go to Maple Street, a seemingly perfect 1950s-picturesque street straight out of a Norman Rockwell painting, with children playing and visiting an ice cream vendor, neighbors chatting, and people tending to their homes and lawns, waving at each other with smiles and making friendly small talk. At “precisely 6:43 p.m.,” all the residents hear a loud roar and see a flash of light pass over their street and disappear. Shortly after this strange occurrence, they lose electricity, radio, phones, and all their cars stop working. As the confusion and worry builds, a young boy named Tommy tells the adults that it was probably an alien ship that landed and cut off their power (according to his comic books) because, “They don’t want us to leave. That’s why they shut everything off” (Serling, 1960).

Although the adults initially dismiss Tommy’s claims, they eventually begin to suspect Tommy is right . Tommy claims that aliens would have sent members ahead of the landing time to prepare and that “...they looked just like humans” (Serling, 1960). When one of the adults jokes that they should check everyone in the neighborhood and see who the aliens are, people laugh nervously at first… but then rapidly begin to suspect one another. This suspicion rises when one of the cars begins to randomly start, despite not working earlier. People begin to suspect the person driving the car is an alien because nothing on the street works except his car, and the suspicion is strengthened when it is revealed that he often takes walks at night due to insomnia. Another neighbor is suspected when it is revealed that they work on ham radios as a hobby. As they argue, a neighbor returns from the next street over and is shot and killed because he looked like a monster in the shadows. The shooter’s lights then turn on, and so he is then suspected to be an alien as well. Eventually suspicion turns on Tommy, and as people’s lights and cars randomly cut on and off, suspicion builds among the crowd, and people arm themselves and fight and kill each other.

The ending scene shows two aliens on a hilltop with a device to manipulate the street’s power. They watch the riot on Maple Street, which hours before had been perfectly peaceful, and discuss how easy it was to create. One of them remarks, “Just stop a few of their machines and radios and telephones and lawn mowers. . . . Throw them into darkness for a few hours, and then just sit back and watch the pattern (Serling, 1960).” They go on to note that people will pick the most dangerous enemy they can find, which is themselves, and they will destroy each other and themselves in the process. Before leaving, one of them states, “Their world is full of Maple Streets. And we’ll go from one to the other and let them destroy themselves. One to the other . . . one to the other . . . one to the other— (Serling, 1960).”

What Is Mass Psychogenic Illness?

So how did the residents of Maple Street go from peaceful tranquility to a violent, deadly mob in a few hours? The Maple Street residents became subject to a psychological phenomenon known as mass psychogenic illness (formerly known as mass hysteria and also known as mass sociogenic illness), defined as the spread of illness symptoms through a population where there is no known infectious agent responsible for contagion (Kelly et al., 2014). Specifically mass psychogenic illness, or MPI, can be divided into two categories: mass anxiety hysteria and mass motor hysteria (Wessely, 1987). Mass anxiety hysteria is characterized by acute anxiety, whereas mass motor hysteria is defined by abnormalities in motor behavior. It is possible for both forms to occur simultaneously or individually (Wessely, 1987). However, it is worth noting that many cases of MPI include anxiety, panic, visual and auditory hallucinations, psychosomatic physical illnesses, and many resulted in the injury and deaths of others. A quick Google search reminds us all of historical MPI events, one of the most well-known being The 1518 Dancing Plague. The 1518 Dancing Plague occurred when between 50 and 400 people took to dancing continuously for months to the point of exhaustion and death. This event met the criteria for MPI in three major ways: it started with one person then spread in an epidemic-like pattern, there were seven other reported dancing plagues in the same regions afterwards, and all were thought to be triggered by the high levels of physical and mental stress among the populations during the time due to famine and disease. 

Although much of MPI is not understood yet on a scientific level, current literature supports that MPI is most often caused by an intense or uncommon environmental trigger (in this case, seeing a flash of light, hearing a loud roar, and losing all power and electronics), which is soon followed by intense emotional responses like fear and anger (e.g., the fear of not knowing what caused the power to go out). This then leads to group stress, often leading into collective trauma, which then leads to social pressure to conform to the trigger as a group (Fritscher, 2022). This social pressure quickly morphs into groupthink, where people will often sacrifice their own individuality and sense of individual responsibility for the sake of a group, especially in decision-making (e.g., everyone else agrees that Tommy’s story makes sense, therefore it must be aliens coming to attack us). Specifically, groupthink was first defined by Janis Irving as a phenomenon where people will “... engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive ingroup that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action” (Janis, 1971). Those who do not conform to the groupthink response are often shunned from the group, or in extreme cases, maimed or murdered for questioning the responses of the group. MPI can happen quickly, spread rapidly, and last anywhere from a few hours to a few months, or even years. Unfortunately, it is often only noticed in retrospect (Fritscher, 2022).

Mass Social Media-Induced Illness: A New Monster for the Information Age

Although MPI can be devastating on it is own, a new type of MPI may be emerging in the modern age: mass social media-induced illness, or MSMI (Müller-Vahl et al., 2022). MSMI was first defined in 2021 as a type of MPI that spreads solely via social media and the internet (Heyman et al., 2021), primarily affects adolescent girls, and was first noticed among a new surge of medical referrals consisting of adolescent girls with sudden onset of motor and phonic tics of a complex and bizarre nature. Most of these referrals occurred after the onset of COVID-19 and with the rise of using TikTok and other social media outlets in lieu of in-person communication (Heyman et al., 2021). The beginning of a particular MSMI outbreak was noticed in Germany after the German YouTube channel Gewitter im Kopf (English, ‘thunderstorm in the brain’), launched by Jan Zimmermann as an educational tool for his Tourette symptoms and living with them, broke one million subscribers in 2019.

The two years following showed an increase of adolescent patients, all prediagnosed with Tourette syndrome, with nearly identical movements and tics matching Jan Zimmermann’s vocal phrases, behaviors, and change in vocal tone (Müller-Vahl.et al., 2022). Furthermore, these patients named their Tourette syndrome as Zimmermann did (his is named “Gisela”), the onset of symptoms seemed to be psychosomatic in nature due to decreasing or disappearing in order to complete favorite activities, and many patients went into complete remission after Tourette’s syndrome was ruled out as the cause (Müller-Vahl. et al., 2022). These patients were given a diagnosis of functional movement disorder, or FMD, in addition to their Tourette’s syndrome diagnosis to differentiate between the two (Müller-Vahl. et al., 2022). Although MPI and MSMI have only recently begun to be studied, it is thought to have contributed to several events, including the rise in eco-anxiety (the fear of environmental doom), the rise in claims of electromagnetic hypersensitivity, or EHS (an unconfirmed illness defined as a reaction to electricity), the occurrences of “Havana syndrome” from 2016–2018, and even helped contribute to certain beliefs and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. While the original “The Monsters are Due on Maple Street” did not have social media, seeing how social media affects MPI today provides us with modern day examples of how quickly misinformation and fear online can spread. Imagine if you will (reference intended) the fear in “The Monsters are Due on Maple Street” reaching global levels within an hour. That’s the potential danger of the MSMI phenomena.

Preventing/Treating MPI and MSMI

MPI and MSMI have no official treatments because they are not officially considered mental illnesses in the DSM-V. However, there are some ways to prevent getting caught in the middle of it. Separating oneself from the group experiencing MPI/MSMI is the first step, and keeping the group as isolated from others as possible can prevent the spread. Confronting the source of stress and reducing it is the next step, because MPI and MSMI grow when the stress is left unchecked (Fritscher, 2022). Once stress levels are reduced, and collective traumas are minimized, introducing the facts and logic of the situation at hand can prevent the symptoms from returning, and stop the spread of misinformation that would be contributing to MPI and MSMI. Of course, recent MSMI events have shown that the spread of MPI via the internet is much faster and much harder to control, but social media companies are attempting to alleviate the effects through fact checking and parental controls. Long-term, anyone susceptible to experiencing MPI (people with anxiety, people that work stressful jobs or frequent stressful environments, etc…) are highly advised to practice stress reduction techniques like deep breathing, medication, and progressive muscle relaxation; seeking cognitive behavioral therapy is also a recommended preventative solution (Fritscher, 2022).

Although ironically MPI happens much less frequently than in the past due to an increase in access to information, it still happens from time to time. Unfortunately, the same tools that can prevent MPI can be used to contribute to it. Knowing about MPI and MSMI as well as how to counteract them are the first steps toward preventing oneself from falling victim to the results. The human mind is a particularly powerful thing, especially when one is in the depths of fear of the unknown. “The Monsters are Due on Maple Street” is a chilling reminder of this fact, and although a work of fiction, it stands the test of time when examining the beginning and end of an MPI event. The episode reminds us all at its conclusion that “the tools of conquest do not necessarily come with bombs and explosions and fallout. There are weapons that are simply thoughts, attitudes, prejudices—to be found only in the minds of men. For the record, prejudices can kill and suspicion can destroy, and a thoughtless, frightened search for a scapegoat has a fallout all of its own for the children...the children yet unborn. And the pity of it is...that these things cannot be confined to...The Twilight Zone!” (Serling, 1960). 

References

Fritscher, L. (2022, April 14). What is mass hysteria? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/understanding-groupthink-2671595

Heyman, I., Liang, H., & Hedderly, T. (2021, May 1). Covid-19 related increase in childhood tics and tic-like attacks. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 106, 420–421. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2021-321748

Janis, I. L. (1971, November). Groupthink. Psychology Today, 1971(November).

Kelly, J. R., Iannone, R. E., & McCarty, M. K. (2014). The function of shared affect in groups. In C. von Scheve & M. Salmella (Eds.). Collective emotions. OUP Oxford. (Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2023-03-22).

Müller-Vahl, K. R., Pisarenko, A., Jakubovski, E., & Fremer, C. (2022, April 18). Stop that! it’s not Tourette’s but a new type of mass sociogenic illness. Brain, 145(2), 476–480. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawab316

Serling, R. (Writer), & Winston, R. (Director) (1960, March 4). The Monsters are due on Maple Street (Season 1, Episode 22) [TV series episode]. In R. Sterling (Executive Producer), The Twilight Zone. CBS.

Wessely, S. (1987). Mass hysteria: Two syndromes? Psychological Medicine, 17(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700013027

Follow Kaitlyn Nasworthy on LinkedIn.

The absurdist and cynically humorous sitcom Rick and Morty encompasses several issues the 21st-century collective is contending with. For example: dread in the face of increasing awareness of our minuscule stake in an infinite universe; horror at the seemingly endless capacity for technological innovation; drug abuse, familial dysfunction, and mental illness are a few major themes. Rick and Morty follows a drug-abusing, nihilistic, narcissistic, endlessly sarcastic super-genius, Rick, and his socially awkward, naive, self-esteem-lacking grandson, Morty, as they adventure interdimensionally through the multiverse.

My favorite episode is Season 3, Episode 6, “Rest and Ricklaxation,” written by Tom Kauffman (IMDB, n.d.). This episode reflects several aspects of psychological science, including the context dependence of adaptive personality traits, the “myth” of the normal brain, and utility of self-acceptance, which I’ll unpack for this article. In the episode, Rick and Morty, suffering from intergalactic adventure burnout, decide that a spa day is needed for psychological recuperation. The pair locate “the best day spa in the galaxy,” where they are offered the opportunity to utilize a machine described as a “psychological detox [which] removes all your cognitive toxins” (Kauffman & Chun, 2017, 00:03:25). The two accept the offer, and following an explosion of white light, find themselves in a dungeon-like room constructed of gooey toxic waste. It is revealed that the machine has divided Rick and Morty into two separate selves: the toxic-waste-chamber-bound embodiment of every dysfunctional, unaccepted trait, and the apparently self-actualized embodiment of perfect mental health, free to roam the galaxy on the outside.

With their toxic selves suppressed from conscious awareness, Rick and Morty begin their new, high-functioning lives. Rick stops drinking, gains moral principles, and stops giving sermons regarding the lack of meaning within existence. Morty, now rid of his socially anxious self, possesses charisma on a superhuman level; he gains immense popularity, a romantic relationship, and success as a stockbroker. But, as our suppressed aspects of self often do, Rick and Morty’s toxic bodies soon make contact. The confined toxic selves escape their imprisonment, aiming to retaliate by forcing their healthy selves into the waste tank.

 After a heated battle, the toxic Rick exclaims: “If I can’t trap you in a toxic world, I’ll just make the whole world toxic,” before fleeing to change Earth into a purely toxic dimension. Initially, healthy Rick plans to allow this, claiming that their toxins have “a right to their world view.” Morty slaps Rick in response, inspiring Rick’s realization that the “detox machine [can't] know the difference between healthy and sick for everything that goes through it” and that “It must be by the individual's own definition of toxicity.” Healthy Rick knows that his toxic self has “irrational attachments,” and he uses threats against toxic Morty as blackmail to force a remerger of self (Kauffman & Chun, 2017, 00:13:00- 00:18:15).

What’s Optimal?

What if the toxic parts of us have their own identities, their own will to live? That stuff is alive, and it belongs to us.

-Rick Sanchez

The extraterrestrial developers of the psychological detox machine had their work cut out for them. They were tasked with determining a definition of functioning that would apply cross-culture-multiverse-ly to beings from an infinite array of realities, each reality with different concepts of biological, social, and psychological health. Understanding the futility of ethnocentric definitions of optimality, these developers programmed the machine to remove the individual’s personal concept of toxicity. This feature of the machine points out something incredible: the same character trait can be valued by one person in one context yet deemed dysfunctional by another person in a different context.

The show's creators use conscience as a prime example of this context-dependent, subjective definition of toxicity. Rick’s loss of his signature, immoral, callous, self-obsession, and Morty “[capitalizing] on his lack of conscience by becoming a stockbroker” (Kauffman & Chun, 2017, 00:20:55) exemplify conscience being simultaneously toxic and functional. Modern theories of conscience are rooted in Freud’s superego concept and include self-conscious, moral emotions like shame, pride, guilt, moral reasoning, and empathy (Schalkwijk, 2018).

Psychologists studying conscience through self-conscious and moral emotions see the conscience as a mechanism that guides people to act in ways that are beneficial to the welfare of their culture (Haidt, 2012; Sznycer, 2019; Tangey et al., 2007). The emotions of embarrassment, guilt, empathy, and shame serve as deterrents to immoral behavior, while pride reinforces socially valued behavior (Sznycer, 2019). Individuals with deficits in conscience are more likely to wind up incarcerated (Verkade et al., 2020; Walters, 2022), and a lack of self-conscious emotions and empathy, coupled with excessive pride, are defining features of narcissism (Czarna et al., 2024) and psychopathy (Hare, 2003). At the same time, however, high levels of shame and guilt contribute negatively to an array of psychopathological symptoms, including anxiety (Candea et al.,2018), substance use disorder (Batchelder et al., 2022), obsessive-compulsive disorder (Hennig-Fast et al., 2015), and PTSD (DeCou et al., 2023; Lancaster & Larsen, 2016).

Morty’s success as a stockbroker following his detoxified conscience makes sense, considering that “successful psychopaths” can thrive in corporate settings (Walker & Jackson, 2017). Additionally, his newfound charisma can be explained by the way narcissists are rated as more likable on first contact, even in comparison to non-narcissists with equally high levels of self-esteem (Giacomin & Jordan, 2018). One should be hesitant to judge psychopathic and narcissistic personality traits too quickly. After analyzing first responders’ psychopathic traits, Patton et al. state: “First responders exhibited significantly higher psychopathy scores than civilians but also reported significantly greater off-duty heroism and altruism” (2018, p. 361). The love that America’s psychopathic, narcissistic presidents garner highlights the advantage individuals lacking in conscience possess in political arenas (Lilienfeld, 2012). This knack for first impressions, a tendency toward fearless heroism, and marked success in politics and business alike are examples of why some researchers view psychopathy and related dimensions of narcissism as, not disorders per se, but evolutionary adaptations (Ene et al., 2022).

Rick’s decrease and Morty’s increase in conscience seemed like clear steps toward self-improvement. After all, narcissistic and psychopathic personality characteristics, as well as low self-esteem and social anxiety, have evident downfalls. Yet, binary, all-or-nothing judgments of ourselves and others tend toward toxicity. As I hope to demonstrate, there are ways of contending with suboptimal traits that don’t necessitate waste-chamber dungeons.

Why Can’t a Psychological Detox Machine Determine Health?

Sometimes science is more art than science. A lot of people don't get that.

-Rick Sanchez.

Psychological detox machine manufacturers are not the only ones who face difficulties determining what constitutes optimal functioning. In fact, Holmes and Patrick (2018) argue that implicit within our current model of defining mental health is a fallacious assumption that deviation from the norm is an entry point to understanding illness. People seem to conjecture that there is a blueprint for health that we should all aim toward achieving, but this idea is flawed. Holmes and Patrick further contend that there is no “optimal brain” and that differences between individuals need to be understood by taking into account the costs and benefits of neurobiological variation from the standpoint of evolution.

For example, one hypothesis states that deficits in regions of the brain responsible for inhibition and goal-directed action are also accountable for heightened sensation-seeking, and impulsivity, which can lead to substance abuse. However, these same regions are also correlated with increases in socialization, exercise frequency, and greater opportunities for romantic relationships. Additionally, amygdala variation is likely responsible for the negative emotions and lack of socialization seen in disorders like depression and anxiety. However, anxiety has been correlated with decreases in accidental death in young adults, and the decreased socialization in depression may be (especially historically) beneficial in mitigating the spread of infectious diseases and avoiding interpersonal disputes and physical altercations (Holmes & Patrick, 2018).

This cost-benefit analysis of individual variation is perhaps most apparent in the neurodiversity movement, which began with autism activists who hope to eradicate the view of autism as a disability. In fact, people on the autism spectrum have advantages in things like computing, mathematics, and detail-oriented tasks, and many companies are hungry to recruit people with this particular neurological makeup (Armstrong, 2015). Additionally, people with dyslexia tend to possess great visual-spatial abilities, and people with ADHD and bipolar disorder are often highly creative.

Clearly, there is no archetype for a perfectly “healthy” brain. Optimal functioning is a subjective dimension of the human experience. Attempting to eradicate components of ourselves that we, or society, deem to be malfunctions can hurt not only us but also the human race as a whole, which thrives and evolves as a result of variation. Regardless of a day spa’s technological advancement, there could never be a universal consensus on what aspects of self are fit for the toxic waste dungeon. Maybe, the only trait that is universally fit for elimination is our self-defeating desire to repress aspects of ourselves we judge unacceptable.

Optimality Is Self-Acceptance

I know that new situations can be intimidating. You’re lookin’ around, and it’s all scary and different, but y’know, meeting them head-on, charging into ‘em like a bull — that’s how we grow as people.

-Rick Sanchez

Because self-acceptance means accepting both the positive and the negative, Rick should continue his trajectory of alcohol-fueled narcissism, and Morty should resign himself to a life fraught with negative affect and insecurity; right? No, complacency and self-acceptance are not synonymous. True self-acceptance means facing one’s shadows, not ignoring them just because a “perfect you” is unobtainable. Confronting the costs of our individual traits can be painful and scary, but it is the first step in addressing all the unaccepted goop we have bottled up in our personal toxic waste chambers. 

At MSU Denver, I was fortunate to take an abnormal psychology class taught by Dr. Flynn, who received her graduate training under Kelly Wilson, a cofounder of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). ACT aims to facilitate cognitive and emotional health, behaviors in line with personal values, and the realization of meaning and purpose. This approach centers on the idea that positive change stems from reducing the tendency to avoid or suppress challenging or painful aspects of experience. ACT uses strategies involving present-moment awareness, examining strictly held thoughts about the self and world, and the skill of accepting adverse experiences to help people better contend with the complexities of life (Wilson et al., 2010; Wilson et al., 2012).

Morty would probably benefit from an acceptance-based approach to addressing his cognitive toxins because acceptance of social anxiety mediates and mitigates the relationship between social anxiety and depression (Flynn et al., 2019). Rick, too, could benefit, considering that ACT shows efficacy in treating substance use on par with 12-step programs and CBT, with the added benefit of reducing guilt and self-stigma associated with addiction (Wilson et al., 2012). ACT views addiction as an attempt to suppress painful, aversive inner experiences; examining this behavior in therapy allows for an opportunity to promote behavior-aligned values (Wilson et al., 2012).

Research suggests that acceptance is a better strategy than suppression and avoidance. It is also a more rational response to our humanity. People are neurologically diverse—that fact is beautiful beyond its evolutionary utility. Trying to achieve a state of “perfect functioning” in every walk of life is like trying to understand what a Plumbus is; it’s not gonna happen, and it’s not the point. Instead of failing at perfection, we should practice nonjudgment and openness to even the scariest, most cognitively toxic of internal experiences, because it is only through meeting them head-on that we grow as people.

References

Armstrong, T. (2015). The myth of the normal brain: embracing neurodiversity. AMA Journal of Ethics, 17(4), 348–352. https://doi.org/10.1001/journalofethics.2015.17.4.msoc1-1504

Batchelder, A. W., Glynn, T. R., Moskowitz, J. T., Neilands, T. B., Dilworth, S., Rodriguez, S. L., & Carrico, A. W. (2022). The shame spiral of addiction: Negative self-conscious emotion and substance use. PLOS ONE, 17(3), e0265480. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265480

Cândea, D.-M., & Szentagotai-Tătar, A. (2018). Shame-proneness, guilt-proneness and anxiety symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 58, 78–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.07.005

Czarna, A. Z., Wróbel, M., F. Folger, L., Holtzman, N. S., Daley, J. R., & D. Foster, J. (2024). Narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Evolutionary roots and emotional profiles. In L. Al-Shawaf & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of evolution and the emotions (1st ed., pp. 1197–1217). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544754.013.62

DeCou, C. R., Lynch, S. M., Weber, S., Richner, D., Mozafari, A., Huggins, H., & Perschon, B. (2023). On the association between trauma-related shame and symptoms of psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1193–1201. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211053617

Ene, I., Wong, K. K.-Y., & Salali, G. D. (2022). Is it good to be bad? An evolutionary analysis of the adaptive potential of psychopathic traits. Evolutionary Human Sciences, 4, e37. https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2022.36

Flynn, M. K., Bordieri, M. J., & Berkout, O. V. (2019). Symptoms of social anxiety and depression: Acceptance of socially anxious thoughts and feelings as a moderator. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 11, 44–49. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.12.002 

Giacomin, M., & Jordan, C. H. (2019). Misperceiving grandiose narcissism as self‐esteem: Why narcissists are well liked at zero acquaintance. Journal of Personality, 87(4), 827–842. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12436

Haidt, J. (Ed.). (2013). The righteous mind: why good people are divided by politics and religion (1. Vintage books ed). Vintage Books.

Hare, R. D. (2011). Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01167-000

Hennig-Fast, K., Michl, P., Müller, J., Niedermeier, N., Coates, U., Müller, N., Engel, R. R., Möller, H.-J., Reiser, M., & Meindl, T. (2015). Obsessive-compulsive disorder – A question of conscience? An fMRI study of behavioural and neurofunctional correlates of shame and guilt. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, 354–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.05.001

Holmes, A. J., & Patrick, L. M. (2018). The myth of optimality in clinical neuroscience. Trends in Cognitive Science, 22(3), 241–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.12.006

IMDb. (n.d.). Rest and RickLaxation. Internet Movie Database (IMDB). https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5218318/?ref_=tt_rvi_tt_i_1  

Kauffman, T. (Writer), & Chun, A. (Director). (2017, August 27). Rest and Ricklaxation (Season 3, Episode 6) [TV series episode]. In Rick and Morty. Adult Swim. 

Lancaster, S. L., & Larsen, S. E. (2016). Profiles of peritraumatic emotions. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(9), 1006–1018. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2016.1219802

Lilienfeld, S. O., Waldman, I. D., Landfield, K., Watts, A. L., Rubenzer, S., & Faschingbauer, T. R. (2012). Fearless dominance and the U.S. presidency: Implications of psychopathic personality traits for successful and unsuccessful political leadership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 489–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029392

Muris, P. (2015). Guilt, shame, and psychopathology in children and adolescents. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 4(6), 177–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-014-0488-9

Patton, C. L., Smith, S. F., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2018). Psychopathy and heroism in first responders: Traits cut from the same cloth? Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 9(4), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000261

Poless, P. G., Torstveit, L., Lugo, R. G., Andreassen, M., & Sütterlin, S. (2018). Guilt and proneness to shame: Unethical behaviour in vulnerable and grandiose narcissism. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1355 

Schalkwijk, F. (2018). A new conceptualization of the conscience. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01863

Sznycer, D. (2019). Forms and functions of the self-conscious emotions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.11.007

Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145

Verkade, M., Karsten, J., Koenraadt, F., & Schalkwijk, F. (2020). Conscience as a regulatory function: An integrative theory put to the test. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 64(4), 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19881918

Walker, B. R., & Jackson, C. J. (2017). Moral emotions and corporate psychopathy: A review. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(4), 797–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3038-5

Walters, G. D. (2022). Conscience and delinquency: A developmentally informed meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 65, 101026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2022.101026

Wilson, K. G., Bordieri, M., Flynn, M. K., Lucas, N., & Slater, R. (2010). Understanding acceptance and commitment therapy in context: A history of similarities and differences. In J. Herbert & E. Forman (Eds.), Acceptance and mindfulness in cognitive behavior therapy: Understanding and applying the new therapies. Wiley. 10.1002/9781118001851

Wilson, K. G., Flynn, M. K., Bordieri, M., Nassar, S., Lucas, N., & Whiteman, K. (2012). Acceptance in cognitive behavior therapy. In W. O’Donohue & J. Fisher (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Core principles for practice. Wiley. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/9781118470886

Wilson, K. G., Flynn, M. K., Schnetzer, L., & Kurz, A. (2012). Treating substance abuse with acceptance and commitment therapy. In S. C. Hayes & M. Levin (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance for addictive behaviors: Applying contextual CBT to substance abuse and behavioral addictions. New Harbinger. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cudenver/detail.action?docID=1058025

Kaitlin Hall, Allyse Dorion, Shaheena Lofthus, Grethel Ramos, Kendall Wells, and Randall Osborne, PhD, Texas State University

We are guessing that our chapter’s post-COVID reality is not that different from other Psi Chi chapters around the country and, perhaps, the world. A catalyst for decreased feelings of connection and sense of community, COVID-19 and the aftermath of the pandemic prevented students from face-to-face interactions and required most of our work—including meeting and inductions—to be done virtually. Although this switch to virtual meetings kept our chapter together during the pandemic, the return to an active and engaged chapter has been a challenge. In fact, the biggest lesson learned has probably been that we could not get back to the previous level of engagement by simply returning to the way we did things before the pandemic. In response to this realization, our chapter officers—led by the leadership ideas of Kaitlin Hall (2023-24 president)—developed a plan of action to grow our chapter both in numbers and in level of engagement.

Every member of the Texas State Psi Chi officer team was indispensable to our chapter’s success. Our approach to marketing and recruitment prioritized adaptability, connection, and space for curiosity. A large part of our efforts centered around what worked for our student population by tailoring our efforts to mirror trends in both psychology and social media. If we were to rebuild our chapter, we had to keep an open-mind and ensure that we remained consistent in our efforts. Essentially, we kept what worked while discarding what didn’t! This iterative process was guided by two fundamental questions: How will our marketing efforts be perceived by students? and Would I, a student, notice this marketing? Specifically, we began to ask members what they want to see, which professors they want to hear from, and even what socials they would be more likely to participate in! We kept an eye on popular publications via Psi Chi or interesting things learned in our classes, bringing them to life in meetings. By embracing this introspective approach, we meticulously evaluated our existing methods and created new ways to grab the attention of students across campus.

COVID-19 enormously impacted students’ feeling of belonging within Texas State Psi Chi. As leaders, we had to ask ourselves what we could do to effectively address this lack of community and connectedness. Together, we explored numerous strategies that focused on maximizing outreach and emphasizing each officer’s diverse skill set. For example, here is how a few of our officers executed recruitment and connectedness in a slightly different way:

• Kaitlin Hall, our president, was determined to boost active membership since assuming office. After extensive discussions with Dr. Randall Osborne, our Psi Chi advisor, they devised a series of initiatives to elevate Psi Chi’s profile at Texas State. A key initiative was the creation and implementation of a workshop series centered around graduate school, "Get to Grad School." This series aimed to focus on graduate school resources, encouraged discussions, and prepared our members for graduate school applications. This three-part series culminated into one big event—mock graduate school interviews. Here, members interviewed with 4-5 professors and/or graduate students gaining hands-on experience advocating for their future research and navigating ethical dilemmas.
• Shaheena Lofthus, our vice-president, focused on marketing Psi Chi one-on-one to students, allowing for questions and a personal, community feel to blossom from the beginning. Throughout her time in Dr. Jessica Perrotte’s lab, classes, and friends, Shaheena embraced a person-centered approach with a focus on tangible impacts with psychology students. Shaheena was steadfast in her ability to connect with students through shared experiences or passions and bring them into the fold.
• Kendall Wells, our treasurer, and president-elect is continuing what worked for the 2023-24 officer team and building on it. With a strategic focus for expanding Psi Chi’s presence throughout campus at various events while solidifying our place in the community through community service, Kendall is committed to propelling our chapter toward even greater heights of active membership and engagement.
• Allyse Dorion, our secretary, worked hard to fill their schedule with 5-minute timeslots throughout first-year to senior psychology classes to discuss benefits, planned events and socials, and workshops. Importantly, Allyse presented Psi Chi to students by discussing what sets Psi Chi apart from other student organizations. Namely, lifetime membership, worldwide connections, the Psi Chi Career Center, and scholarships.
• Aly Shepard, our historian, understood what appealed to our audience via social media and executed it. She constantly searched for new social media trends to play on by talking with students on campus or friends in classes! Aly began her college career as a photography major and harnessed her passion for art and creativity to benefit Psi Chi.
• Grethel Ramos, our events coordinator, applied knowledge about campus and events like no one else on our team. Specifically, throughout her time as a student as Texas State, she worked in the Student Involvement office, which allowed her to see which events students were drawn to and mirror the organization and structure of Psi Chi events similarly. Grethel cultivated Psi Chi events and reintroduced socials that invited comradery and conversation throughout members and prospective members!

Fellow students eagerly embraced our efforts, allowing our chapter to expand its reach and build strategic partnerships, creative collaborations, and a steadfast commitment to our shared vision. We not only revitalized our chapter but also contributed to the vibrant tapestry of student life at Texas State University.

As a result of these concerted efforts, our fall and spring induction classes marked a significant milestone in our chapter’s history, welcoming the largest cohort ever welcomed into our Psi Chi community. Beyond more numbers, the true triumph lies in witnessing a palpable surge in active participation throughout our chapter. Guided by our dedicated advisor’s vision, we shifted our focus toward recruiting individuals driven by a genuine passion for actively contributing to Psi Chi’s mission. Consequently, our meetings have become vibrant hubs of collaboration and conversation, drawing a diverse array of perspectives. This heightened engagement has translated into tangible impact in which our members eagerly invest their time and skills into our various service projects, socials, and meetings while actively seeking mentorship opportunities to continue developing their passion and excitement for psychology. As officers, we sought to develop an atmosphere in which student thrive by blending exploration, opportunity, and community. By prioritizing inclusivity and curiosity, the 2023-24 TXST Psi Chi Officers cultivated a dynamic community of future psychologists who are deeply committed to making meaningful contributions to psychology and society at large. As the 2023-24 Officer term comes to an end, we are confident that the incoming officer class will eagerly take over our efforts while continuing to build upon them with enthusiasm and fresh perspectives.

Disney movies can bring a sense of magic into any story. Originally written by Hans Christian Anderson in 1837, The Little Mermaid was made into an animated movie in 1989 (Musker & Clements, 1989) and most recently, a live action version in 2023 (Marshall, 2023). The Little Mermaid tells the story of an underwater world where an adolescent mermaid named Ariel desperately wants to know what life is like above the sea. Her father, King Triton, is the King of the Sea and forbids Ariel to go to the land. She yearns for the human world, and eventually disobeys him. When she does, she meets and falls in love with the dashing Prince Eric, and ultimately has to decide whether to leave the sea to be with him, or stay underwater with everyone she's ever known. Although Disney movies are known for packaging stories in ways to make them happy and entertaining for children, there is often a deeper message. Some of the psychology themes present in the live action version of The Little Mermaid include parenting styles, adolescent risk-taking and impulsivity, and identity versus role confusion. Let’s dive into some of the many gadgets and gizmos that this movie has to offer. 

Parenting Styles 

King Triton’s parenting style foreshadows how Ariel is going to act in her teenage years. Parenting styles are best defined as the behaviors, emotional responses, and attitudes that parents present toward their children (Bi et al., 2018). There are four types of parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved. King Triton exhibits authoritarian parenting with Ariel. Authoritarian parents are very strict and obedience based—they typically have a lot of rules, but do not explain those rules to their child and expect the child to simply follow and obey them. In the movie, this was represented when King Triton said to Ariel, “As long as you live under my ocean, you’ll obey my rules” (Marshall, 2023, 15:26). Typically, authoritarian parenting is associated with negative adolescent development (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2019). This may be because authoritarian parenting tends to create conflict in parent–adolescent relationships due to lack of communication and understanding (Bi et al., 2018). Parents who use an authoritarian parenting style often raise children who eventually rebel against them, like Ariel did in the film (Sanvictores & Mendez, 2022). Because she did not understand why her father hated the human world so much, it made her curious to find out what it was really like. Perhaps had he explained his reasons for mistrusting humans (that Ariel’s mother died due to interacting with the human world), she might have been more inclined to understand and respect his rules, rather than rebelling against them. 

Adolescent Behavior

Ariel is “16 years old and not a child anymore” (Musker & Clements, 1989, 13:10), putting her squarely in the developmental stage of adolescence. As with human teenagers, adolescent mer-folk are filled with hormones and curiosity, often leading to making irrational, impulsive decisions. From a physiological perspective, adolescents (both human and mer!) tend to engage in sensation-seeking behaviors due to a lack of development in the prefrontal cortex (Romer, 2017). The combination of hormones and the underdevelopment of the prefrontal cortex can lead to some serious risk-taking, as Ariel showcased in the film (Laube, 2016; Marshall, 2023).

One example of Ariel’s risk-taking behavior occurs early on while she is exploring a forbidden shipwreck. While searching for human treasures, Ariel encounters a hungry shark, barely escaping unscathed. Adolescents often believe themselves to be invincible, frequently leading them to engage in risky behaviors because they do not recognize the danger (Romer et al., 2017). Perhaps a more classic example is that Ariel made frequent visits to the surface to visit first Scuttle, and then later, Prince Eric. As noted previously, King Triton expressly forbade these visits to the surface for safety reasons. And yet, Ariel consistently breaks those rules, likely due to the dual systems model. The dual systems model suggests that increased risk-taking and impulsivity during one’s adolescent years is due to both heightened sensitivity to reward, and decreased ability to control impulsive thoughts (Strang et al., 2013). These psychological traits, combined with physiological ailments, such as her underdeveloped prefrontal cortex, is where the dual systems theory becomes operative. We further saw examples of risk-taking behaviors when Ariel chose to become a human for three days. Although things ultimately ended up happily ever after, Ariel, Eric, and King Triton were almost killed in the process. That being said, the abundance of psychological and physiological changes that take place during adolescent development lead to dangerous situations that can cause irreparable damage.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescents commonly experience the struggle to figure out who they are and who they are supposed to be. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development posits that there are eight stages of development that occur throughout our lives, all of which contribute to our adjustment. Each stage involves a crisis that must be resolved; if we can resolve the crisis, we can continue along the path of healthy development. Failure to resolve the crisis can lead to maladjustment.

The crisis of identity versus role confusion prominently arises and remains prevalent during adolescence (Ragelienė, 2016). In the film, King Triton already had Ariel's path and life set out for her, but it was not the life she wanted. When a parent implements a specific role for their child, or has set expectations, it may be due to something they feel is missing in their own lives (Macfie, 2015). In King Triton’s case, this may be related to the trauma of his wife dying at the hands of the humans. Perhaps he felt like he let his wife down by not shielding her from the human world, leading to an increased desire to protect Ariel from the same fate. Understandably, this might have created a lot of role confusion for Ariel, because she constantly yearns for a chance to be on the land and with the humans, but that is not the life that was planned out for her.

Identity and role confusion also comes to play when one is seeking out a romantic partner (Hadiwijaya, 2017). When parents have the ideal partner in mind for their child, it is difficult for the child to go against their wishes and risk letting them down. Ariel experiences this deeply through not wanting to disappoint her father by being with a human and also knowing that, if she does become human, she will lose her entire identity as a mermaid. However, even though she knew that she would not be able to be a mermaid anymore and live with her family, she knew she did not belong there and chose to be with Prince Eric instead.

Conclusion

The Little Mermaid is a classic Disney film that is beloved by children and adults—both in animated and live action forms (Marshall, 2023; Musker & Clements, 1989). However, it is easy for viewers to overlook the psychological themes in the film and fail to realize how many of the themes have taken place in their own lives. Many adults who watch this film are parents and may use similar parenting styles. Also, adolescents, or adults who were once adolescents, have most likely experienced both risk-taking and impulsivity and identity versus role confusion. Although they may not know the psychoanalytic aspects of these themes or what they are called, they have likely experienced something similar. Although Disney movies are meant to be happy and lighthearted, that does not mean we cannot learn from them!

References

Bi, X., Yang, Y., Li, H., Wang, M., Zhang, W., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2018). Parenting styles and parent–adolescent relationships: The mediating roles of behavioral autonomy and parental authority. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2187. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02187

Collado, A., Felton, J. W., MacPherson, L., & Lejuez, C. W. (2014). Longitudinal trajectories of sensation seeking, risk taking propensity, and impulsivity across early to middle adolescence. Addictive Behaviors, 39(11), 1580–1588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.024

Gandhi, A., Luyckx, K., Goossens, L., Maitra, S., & Claes, L. (2016). Sociotropy, autonomy, and non-suicidal self-injury: The mediating role of identity confusion. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 272–277.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.040

Hadiwijaya, H., Klimstra, T. A., & Vermunt, J. K. (2017). On the development of harmony, turbulence, and independence in parent–adolescent relationships: A five-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1772–1788.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0627-7

Kuppens, S., & Ceulemans, E. (2019). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x

Laube, C., & Van Den Bos, W. (2016). Hormones and affect in adolescent decision making: Recent developments in neuroscience research on human motivation advances in motivation and achievement, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 19, 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320160000019013

Macfie, J., Brumariu, L. E., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2015). Parent–child role-confusion: A critical review of an emerging concept. Developmental Review, 36, 34–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.002

Marshall, R. (Director). (2023). The little mermaid [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures.

Musker, J., & Clements, R. (Directors). (1989). The little mermaid [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures.

Orenstein, G. A., & Lewis, L. (2022). Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. StatPearls Publishing.

Ragelienė, T. (2016). Links of adolescents identity development and relationship with peers: A systematic literature review. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(2), 97–105.

Romer, D., Reyna, V. F., & Satterthwaite, T. D. (2017). Beyond stereotypes of adolescent risk taking: Placing the adolescent brain in developmental context. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 27, 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.07.007

Sanvictores, T., & Mendez, M. D. (2022). Types of parenting styles and effects on children. National Library of Medicine.

Smetana, J. G. (2017). Current research on parenting styles, dimensions, and beliefs. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.012

Strang, N. M., Chein, J. M., & Steinberg, L. (2013). The value of the dual systems model of adolescent risk-taking. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 223. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00223

Miabella Baker is a recent graduate from Holy Family University, where she earned her Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology with a minor in Mental Health Services. She is currently pursuing a Master of Science Degree in Counseling Psychology and aspires to become a therapist upon graduation. In her free time, Bella enjoys playing and writing music, visiting the beach, and spending time with her family and friends. Follow her on LinkedIn or contact her at mbaker1000@holyfamily.edu.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Over the past few years, there has been a noticeable surge in scholarly attention devoted to examining the influence of pet ownership on the holistic well-being of individuals. (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010). Researchers have delved deeply into unraveling the multifaceted effects that pets exert on people (Blouin, 2012). This burgeoning area of inquiry entails an expansive and thorough exploration of the psychological dynamics inherent in human-pet relationships, encompassing not only how pets mitigate stress levels (Chin et al., 2024) but also their significant role in furnishing social support to individuals in need (Barker et al., 2020).

Owning a pet has been acknowledged to alleviate stress and enhance overall well-being, serving as a significant social determinant of health by reducing the risk of disease and fostering positive routines (Chin et al., 2024). The companionship pets provide offers invaluable emotional support, with animals displaying a remarkable understanding of human behaviors and emotions. Dogs, for example, excel at comprehending words and interpreting tone of voice, body language, and gestures, akin to a trusted friend who can gauge one's emotional state (Robinson & Segal, 2024). There is growing evidence that owning a pet has mental health benefits for older individuals (Hui Gan et al., 2019).

Interacting with pets appears to have direct biochemical benefits. For example, pet interactions trigger the release of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, the release of which is associated with decreased feelings of depression and loneliness, while boosting self-esteem and happiness (Miller, 2020). Ultimately, the profound emotional connection between pet and owner can mirror that found in human relationships, bestowing similar psychological benefits (McNicholas et al., 2005).

Pets play a significant role in our lives by providing social support akin to human relationships, offering a stable source of attachment security, and fostering emotional closeness comparable to that found in close family bonds (Barker et al., 2020). By examining the interplay between pet ownership and human social support in predicting psychological health, Antonacopoulos and Pychyl (2010) found that dog owners with ample human social support exhibited significantly lower loneliness levels than nonowners. Kanat-Maymon and colleagues (2021) suggest that the psychological well-being of pet owners hinges not only on what they receive from their pets but also on their active support of their pets' needs. Paul (2015) states that pet owners often anthropomorphize their pets and view them as significant companions, providing care to a dog may yield outcomes akin to supporting a close human relationship. This relationship can even resemble familial bonds, acting as surrogate family members when human counterparts are absent or in addition to them (Wisdom et al., 2009).

The evidence is growing in support of the positive impacts of pet ownership, including mental health and social benefits. Pets are often viewed as a source of unconditional love, companionship, and a constant source of joy for humans.

References

Antonacopoulos, N. M., & Pychyl, T. A. (2010). An examination of the potential role of pet ownership, human social support and pet attachment in the psychological health of individuals living alone. Anthrozoös, 23(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710x12627079939143  

Barker, S. B., Schubert, C. M., Barker, R. T., Kuo, S. I.-C., Kendler, K. S., & Dick, D. M. (2018). The relationship between pet ownership, social support, and internalizing symptoms in students from the first to fourth year of college. Applied Developmental Science, 24(3), 279–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1476148

Blouin, D. D. (2012). Understanding relations between people and their pets. Sociology Compass, 6(11), 856–869. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2012.00494.x  

Chin, B. N., Singh, T., & Carothers, A. S. (2024). Co-sleeping with pets, stress, and sleep in a nationally-representative sample of United States adults. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56055-9

Hui Gan, G. Z., Hill, A.-M., Yeung, P., Keesing, S., & Netto, J. A. (2019). Pet ownership and its influence on mental health in older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 24(10), 1605–1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1633620  

Kanat-Maymon, Y., Wolfson, S., Cohen, R., & Roth, G. (2020). The benefits of giving as well as receiving need support in human–pet relations. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22(3), 1441–1457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00279-9

McNicholas, J., Gilbey, A., Rennie, A., Ahmedzai, S., Dono, J.-A., & Ormerod, E. (2005). Pet ownership and human health: A brief review of evidence and issues. BMJ, 331(7527), 1252–1254. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.331.7527.1252

Miller, L. (2020, October 26). The psychological and physical benefits of having a pet. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-mind-body-connection/202010/the-psychological-and-physical-benefits-having-pet

Paul, E. S., Moore, A., McAinsh, P., Symonds, E., McCune, S., & Bradshaw, J. W. (2015). Sociality motivation and anthropomorphic thinking about pets. Anthrozoös, 27(4), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303714x14023922798192  

Robinson, L., & Segal, J. (2024, February 5). The health and mood-boosting benefits of pets. HelpGuide.org. https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/mood-boosting-power-of-dogs.htm  

Wisdom, J. P., Saedi, G. A., & Green, C. A. (2009). Another breed of “service” animals: Stars study findings about pet ownership and recovery from serious mental illness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(3), 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016812

Reactions to failure involve both reason, which may help us improve, and emotion, which may hamper our progress. Our reactions to failure are learned and are highly impacted by how we react to failure in our pivotal development years.

Our reactions to failure are learned at a young age. Eskreis-Winkler (2022) explained that, from a young age, people are told there is information in failure and that we need to learn from it, but evidence suggests that people struggle to see the information in failure (Simpson et al., 2019). Simpson et al. (2019) suggested that learning from failure should be included as part of K–12 education, as it could lead people to change their attitudes toward failure from negative to positive. These researchers found that failure is a necessary part of science and exploration. However, response-to-failure training needs to be cautious about framing success after failure. Eskreis-Winkler (2024) found that, while telling people they will succeed after failure may make them feel better, that mindset can have damaging real-world consequences given that success after failure is never guaranteed.

Learning from failure is impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Carlson and Fishbach (2024) stated that individuals often strive to feel exceptional, but fear of failure can create emotional barriers to learning from mistakes. This can cause individuals to associate failure with negative connotations. While studying the conditions under which airline pilots would learn from failure, Sieberichs and Kluge (2021) found that a lack of assertiveness was the strongest risk factor for judgment and decision-making errors in airline pilots. Flight crews that were more assertive were less likely to make mistakes and when they did, they were more likely to recognize the mistake, report it, and learn from it.

Social learning may be a critical theory in helping others develop strategies for dealing with failure (Atanasiu, 2023). Social learning results from observing the experiences of those close to us and may help reduce negative thinking that prevents us from learning from failure, such as confirmation bias. Confirmation bias prevents individuals from unlearning old perspectives and adapting to new ones, hindering growth from failure (Atanasiu, 2023).

In conclusion, we learn most of our attitude toward failure during childhood. If parents and teachers have a positive attitude toward failure, we learn more from our mistakes. If parents and teachers have a negative attitude, our response will likely contain negative feelings, which impede learning. Promoting social learning and a growth mindset, where failure is seen as a steppingstone to improvement, can shift learners from a negative to a positive frame.

References

Atanasiu, R. (2023, September 28). What exactly do we learn from lailure? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/to-choose-or-not-to-choose/202309/what-exactly-do-we-learn-from-failure

Carlson, R. W., & Fishbach, A. (2024). Learning from failure. Motivation Science. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000338

Eskreis-Winkler, L. (2024, June 10). Benefits of failure are overrated. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2024/06/benefits-failure-overrated

Eskreis-Winkler, L., & Fishbach, A. (2022). You think failure is hard? So is learning from it. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(6), 1511–1524. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211059817

Sieberichs, S., & Kluge, A. (2021). Why learning opportunities from aviation incidents are lacking: The impact of active and latent failures and confidential reporting. Aviation Psychology and Applied Human Factors, 11(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1027/2192-0923/a000204

Simpson, A., Anderson, A., & Maltese, A. V. (2019). Caught on camera: Youth and educators’ noticing of and responding to failure within making contexts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 28(5), 480–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-019-09780-0

Simpson, A., & Maltese, A. (2017). “Failure is a major component of learning anything”: The role of failure in the development of STEM professionals. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 26(2), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-016-9674-9

Gaslighting has become a popular term to describe “a type of psychological abuse aimed at making victims seem or feel ‘crazy,’ creating a ‘surreal’ interpersonal environment” (Charlton & Charlton, 2023; Sweet, 2019). Most commonly, gaslighting refers to manipulative behaviors between romantic partners, such as denying the veracity of recalled events, challenging a partner’s memories, or making the partner responsible for the other’s behaviors. Gaslighting can occur in any relationship, including parent–child interactions (Bernstein, 2022; Lobel, 2024).

Parental gaslighting can negatively affect a child's confidence. Lobel (2024) stated, “Any parent can gaslight their children, but most don’t as it is deceptive and destructive to the child, especially during the developmental process of childhood.” Constant gaslighting can be seen as a type of emotional abuse with potentially lifelong consequences, including mental health challenges, emotional difficulties, and relationship issues (Muzammil et al., 2024).

Children raised in a context of parental gaslighting are at risk of developing a lack of trust and/or connection with their parents. Dobric and Patric (2024) argue that a lack of emotional connection with parents in early childhood may produce “trust issues or reluctance towards full engagement in friendships or romantic relationships, culminating in diminished self-esteem and imbalanced interpersonal relations.” Personality traits associated with gaslighting behaviors in parents can include hostility, anger, and dissociative defense mechanisms (Bellomare et al., 2023). Children raised in these emotional contexts may imitate these patterns in their adult lives (Campos, 2023). Children exposed to parental gaslighting may be “more likely to develop psychological and mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, borderline personality disorder, and somatic symptom disorder” (Farooq et al., 2024).

There are ways to address the challenges of parental gaslighting. Recognizing and accepting parental gaslighting can reduce the internalization of unwanted outcomes (Lobel, 2024). Another strategy is to actively recognize parental limitations and fallibility. Bernstein (2022) argues, “Seeing your parents as limited will help [children] not take their comments or actions so personally. The more [children] see [their] parents as having limitations, the more [they]can empathize with their struggles.”

The full impact, scope, and severity of parental gaslighting is not well-understood. The psychological literature is limited in its addressing of gaslighting in general, and parental gaslighting in particular. As gaslighting continues to be a popular term and topic of interest, many would benefit from rigorous, controlled, psychological science on this topic, with a particular focus on the childhood development aspect of gaslighting to identify, address, and minimize the effect that gaslighting can have on children.

References

Bellomare, M., Genova, V. G., & Miano, P. (2024). Gaslighting exposure during emerging adulthood: Personality traits and vulnerability paths. International Journal of Psychological Research, 17(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.6306 

Bernstein, J. (2022, December 16). Stopping the pain from your gaslighting parents. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/liking-the-child-you-love/202211/stopping-the-pain-from-your-gaslighting-parents

Campos, F. S. (2023, September 22). The impact of destructive parental relationships on children’s mental health. Seven Editora. https://doi.org/10.56238/innovhealthknow-023

Charlton, S. R., & Charlton A. (2023). Gaslighting as the word of the year is a subtle nod to the importance of psychology. Eye on Psi Chi, 27(3), 8.

Dobric, T., & Patric, A. (2024). The hidden face of parenting: Emotional immaturity. SCIENCE International Journal, 3(1), 145–148. https://doi.org/10.35120/sciencej0301145d 

Farooq, M., Kazmi, U. E. R., & Muazzam, A. (2024). Efficacy of assertive training for gaslighting and mental health in university students. Kurdish Studies, 12(2), 5629–5643. https://kurdishstudies.net/menu-script/index.php/KS/article/view/2721

Lobel, D. S. (2024, May 6). The damage done by constant parental gaslighting. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/my-side-of-the-couch/202405/effects-of-frequent-parental-gaslighting

Muzammil, M., Muzammil, A., & Muzammil W. (2024, May 2). Peace with painful memories. University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/chem_fac/268. 

Sweet, P. (2019). The sociology of gaslighting. American Sociological Review, 84(5), 851­–875. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

The widespread consequences of addiction are relatable to many. Addiction is a heavily researched complex disease. An estimated 19.7 million people aged twelve or older had an alcohol or illicit drug abuse disorder in 2017 (Cable  et al., 2019). Substance abuse comes at a high cost to individuals and society. Recent measures indicate that 1 in 5 individuals develop a substance use disorder in the United States, which is likely to go up as the legality of various drugs is increasing nationally (Dick, 2024). Opioid use disorder results in over 130 overdoses each day and costs the United States billions of dollars through prescription misuse (Freda et al., 2021). Given the significant social and economic costs of drug abuse, understanding the underlying mechanisms of addiction is important.

For a full understanding of addiction, environmental and genetic factors must be considered (Koijam et al., 2024). Exploring the interplay between environmental versus genetic contribution is a concept familiar to psychologists. Addiction researchers seek to understand the interplay between these environmental and genetic factors as they work to effectively detect, prevent, and treat the substance abuse.

Although environmental factors are highly studied and understood, recent advances in genetic research are allowing for deeper understanding of how drugs may affect brain and behavioral function (Valentino et al., 2024). Over recent years, researchers have identified 47 gene variants linked to various substance abuse disorders (Gold, 2024).

Recognizing how genes affect addiction can also be understood through heredity. Several recent heredity studies provide new insights into addiction risk. Twin studies have shown that the heritability of alcohol use disorders is approximately 50–60% (Reilly et al., 2017). Polygenic risk scores, which analyze different variations of genes in relation to a specific disease, have recently been found to predict 8% of the risk for opioid dependence. Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and the Genetic Addiction Risk Score (GARS) predict addictive and compulsive behaviors suggestive of Reward Deficiency Syndrome (Blum et al., 2022). The GWAS are able to pinpoint the genes associated with disease.

In addition to genetics, a variety of environmental circumstances can also affect one's chances of addiction. Some of these influences include individual background, individual mores, or social status (Popescu et al., 2021). Recent research indicates that environmental factors, such as household income and education level, have significant links to opioid use disorder (Gold, 2024).

References

Blum, K., Han, D., Bowirrat, A., Downs, B. W., Bagchi, D., Thanos, P. K., Baron, D., Braverman, E. R., Dennen, C.A., Gupta, A., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Llanos-Gomez, L., Khalsa, j., Barh, D., McLaughlin, T., & Gold, M. S. (2022, October 27). Genetic addiction risk and psychological profiling analyses for “preaddiction” severity index. Journal of Personalized Medicin, 12(11), 1772. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4426/12/11/1772

Cable, J., Koob, G. F., & Uhl, G. R. (2019, January 15). The neurobiology of addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.  https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nyas.13989

Dick, D. M. (2024, March 21). How to know if you are at risk for addiction. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/genes-environments-and-human-behavior/202403/how-to-know-if-you-are-at-risk-for-addiction

Freda, P. J., Moore, J. H., & Kranzler, H. R. (2021). The phenomics and genetics of addictive and affective comorbidity in opioid use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108602

Gold, M. S. (2024, April 18). Genetics and addiction: What we’ve learned. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/addiction-outlook/202404/genetics-and-addiction

Koijam, A. S., Singh, K. D., Nameirakpam, B. S., Haobam, R., & Rajashekar, Y. (2024). Drug addiction and treatment: An epigenetic perspective. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 170, 115951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115951

Popescu, A., Marian, M., Drăgoi, A. M., & Costea, R. V. (2021). Understanding the genetics and neurobiological pathways behind addiction (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 21(5), 544. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.9976

Reilly, M. T., Noronha, A., Goldman, D., & Koob, G. F. (2017). Genetic studies of alcohol dependence in the context of the addiction cycle. Neuropharmacology, 122, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.01.017

Valentino, R. J., Nair, S. G., & Volkow, N. D. (2024). Neuroscience in addiction research. Journal of Neural Transmission, 131(5), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-023-02713-7

“Attend the tale of Sweeney Todd…” - (Sondheim, 1979, 0:08).

In the ominous world of "Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street" (Burton, 2007), the titular character, Sweeney Todd, embarks on his tale as Benjamin Barker—a blissfully content barber alongside his wife, Lucy, and newborn daughter, Johanna. However, his life takes a tragic turn when the corrupt Judge Turpin, desiring Barker’s wife, unjustly imprisons him on false charges. After 15 years of yearning to reunite with his family, Barker escapes prison and returns to London, only to discover that nothing is the same as when he left. Upon learning that his former barbershop is now occupied by the dilapidated Mrs. Lovett’s Meat Pie Shop, Mrs. Lovett tells him of Lucy's tragic fate: she committed suicide following an assault by Judge Turpin, who then took and raised Johanna as his own. Adopting the alias Sweeney Todd, Barker embarks on a quest for revenge against Judge Turpin and those complicit in destroying his life. Teaming up with Mrs. Lovett, Todd utilizes his newly reopened barbershop to embark on a murderous spree, disposing of his victims while providing Mrs. Lovett with free meat for her pies.

As the haunting tale unfolds, revealing its layers of tragedy, revenge, and psychological turmoil, it becomes evident that this narrative serves as a rich source for exploring the intricate and dark aspects of human behavior, emotion, and the impact of traumatic experiences. The profound transformation from Benjamin Barker's seemingly idyllic life to the depths of despair in Sweeney Todd’s vengeful quest for retribution presents a compelling opportunity for psychological analysis.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self Actualization

“Sweeney wishes the world away. Sweeney's weeping for yesterday. Hugging the blade, waiting the years. Hearing the music that nobody hears…” - (Sondheim, 1979, 1:45).

In 1943, renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow introduced a groundbreaking theory that identified five fundamental human needs shaping motivational behavior. The theory posits that individuals are driven to fulfill specific needs, forming a hierarchy where certain needs take precedence over others. This hierarchy unfolds progressively, beginning with the most fundamental physiological needs (such as air, food, water, shelter, and clothing) that are essential for human survival. Only after these basic needs are satisfied can individuals advance to subsequent levels: Safety (involving protection from elements, security, order, law, and stability), belonging (fulfilling the social need for interpersonal relationships, companionship, and attachment), and esteem (including dignity, achievement, independence, and the desire for reputation and respect through status or prestige). Once individuals meet these initial four levels of needs, they can embark on the final stage of self-actualization, involving fulfilled personal growth and achieving one's full potential (McLeod, 2018). Maslow's model not only serves as a theory of human needs but also as a model of personality development. This perspective raises intriguing questions about how unmet needs can influence an individual's descent into a complex narrative, ultimately shaping the trajectory of their character. For further information and a visual representation of the hierarchy, refer to Burton’s (2012) image and article from Psychology Today.

Examining the life of Barker/Todd sheds immense light on the application of Maslow's hierarchy. Before his unjust imprisonment, Barker had successfully addressed his lower tier needs, as depicted in the song "No Place Like London” (Burton, 2007, 3:50). This musical piece, featuring Sweeney reflecting on his past life as Benjamin Barker, unfolds with poignant flashbacks. In one particular flashback, evidence of Barker’s fulfilled physiological needs is apparent as an elegantly dressed Barker and Lucy push their child through a garden in a sophisticated stroller while Johanna plays with a fancy doll (Burton, 2007, 6:23). This moment suggests that Barker and his family had the financial resources to meet basic life needs, including clothing and shelter. It also indicates the satisfaction of safety needs, thanks to his prosperous barbershop, ensuring a secure livelihood. Moreover, Barker’s fulfilled needs of belonging were evident in the affectionate relationships between himself, his wife, and their child. However, the traumatic events that unfolded plunged Barker/Todd back to square one regarding fulfilling his hierarchical needs. He lost his needs of belonging with the loss of his wife and child, had no means for financial support as he lost his barbershop, and additionally now had a criminal charge on his record, making attaining even the most basic psychological needs difficult.

How does the profound disconnect between oneself and self-actualization impact the psyche, particularly when one was once on the brink of attaining it? Maslow indicated that individuals unable to achieve self-actualization might undergo a disassociation from their environment, and in extreme cases, from themselves—an experience resembling a psychotic break (Maslow, 1970). In the context of Sweeney Todd, this psychological turmoil becomes the focal point of the show. Although Benjamin Barker was a fulfilled man, Sweeney Todd's sole source of fulfillment and motivation center entirely around revenge and the desperate need to reclaim what was taken from him. The character's descent into a vengeful mindset aligns with Maslow’s theory, providing insight into how the deprivation of fundamental human needs can drive individuals to extreme actions.

Revenge

“There's a hole in the world like a great black pit. And it's filled with people who are filled with shit. And the vermin of the world inhabit it. But not for long…” - (Burton, 2007, 1:02:35).

Although the theme of revenge is prominently featured in the show, the core motivation behind Todd’s quest for vengeance is a compelling mystery. Does his dark and violent desire for revenge stem from his coinciding need for self-actualization, or is it a response to his loss of self-actualization? Moreover, would Todd find satisfaction if Judge Turpin acknowledged his misdeeds and endured the same great losses that Todd experienced? These questions, open to audience interpretation, highlight the ambiguity surrounding where and how Todd draws the moral line in pursuing his retribution. This ambiguity calls for a closer examination of the thematic underpinnings of revenge.

In academic discourse on revenge, a widely accepted view posits that achieving satisfaction in revenge depends on the presence of a sense of balance. Motivated by a retributive principle centered on proportionality (Berman, 2011; Geeraets, 2022; Struhl, 2015), the pursuit of revenge is guided by the idea that the level and type of retaliation should correspond to the harm caused by the initial wrongdoing. Essentially, the key is to ensure that the revenge aligns with the original offense in both quantity and quality. According to this perspective, a proportional response not only restores fairness but also reintroduces a semblance of balance to the disrupted world order. The crucial inquiry that arises involves determining the precise balance that must be reinstated for revenge to be genuinely satisfying, while concurrently addressing the need to balance the level of pain between the avenger and the offender. In the case of Sweeney Todd, wrongful incarceration created an emotional imbalance between the victim (Barker/Todd) and the offenders (Judge Turpin and his sidekick Beadle Bamford). Consequently, Barker/Todd sought to rectify this imbalance by ensuring that Turpin and Bamford personally experienced suffering. According to this perspective, Barker/Todd could only find satisfaction in revenge when the offenders underwent the pain inflicted upon them (Gollwitzer, 2009).

An alternative perspective suggests that the satisfaction derived from revenge lies in making the wrongdoer comprehend the moral reprehensibility of their actions (French, 2001). According to this perspective, revenge achieves satisfaction only when the offender acknowledges that retribution was exacted due to and in response to their prior unfair conduct. In the context of Sweeney Todd, just before Todd is about to kill Turpin, he lures the judge into a false sense of security. Then, as he raises his switchblade, aiming for Turpin’s neck, he reveals his identity. This strategic act suggests a profound desire on Todd's part for Turpin to fully comprehend that he is the architect behind the tumultuous events unfolding in his life, the same way Turpin was for him. 

As the pursuit of revenge often hinges on a desire for personal satisfaction and the infliction of emotional pain on the offender, an inherent conflict arises between revenge and justice. Justice, inherently bound by principles that discourage personal retribution, appears incompatible with the emotional and individual aspects integral to revenge. Retribution, deeply rooted in personal motives, involves seeking payback, whereas justice is distinguished by its lack of personal bias and impartiality, serving as a social and legal construct (Seltzer, 2014). Essentially, vengeful acts are fueled by vindictiveness, while justice's primary aim lies in rebalancing and attaining vindication (Seltzer, 2014). The tension between these perspectives becomes particularly evident when examining cases like Todd's, where the avenger not only seeks to redress a perceived imbalance but also aims to convey a poignant message to the offender. This highlights the difficulties the justice system faces in accommodating the emotional and individual elements that vengeful individuals may see as lacking in its approach. This tension raises questions about whether justice, as traditionally defined, can truly address the complex interplay between personal satisfaction and societal notions of retribution.

Consequences of Unrestrained Power

“At the top of the hole sit a privileged few. Making a mockery of the vermin in the lower zoo. Turning beauty to filth and greed…” - (Burton, 2007, 5:09).

Exploring the intricacies of Sweeney Todd's psyche unveils another recurring theme: the repercussions of unbridled power and authority. This theme manifests in various dimensions within the story, most notably within the context of a corrupt justice system. False charges against Benjamin Barker exemplify the unchecked power wielded by corrupt officials, notably Judge Turpin, whose authority is tainted by lust and control. Turpin's abuse of power extends to his manipulation of the lives of those around him, notably Barker's daughter, Johanna, whom he desires. The narrative further unfolds as Todd himself succumbs to the seductive allure of power. His unquenchable thirst for revenge propels him into the role of vigilante justice, seeking retribution through brutal and unforgiving means. This exploration prompts contemplation of the profound influence that power exerts over the psyche, decision-making processes, and behavior of individuals.

Theoretical and empirical evidence aligns with the narrative, suggesting that individuals in positions of power tend to exhibit specific behavioral patterns. They are more inclined to be action-oriented (Galinsky et al., 2008; Galinsky et al., 2003), exhibit variable and less predictable behavior (Galinsky et al., 2008), and process information in a more abstract manner rather than focusing on concrete details (Smith & Trope, 2006). This is palpable in the story, first through Todd's engagement in action-oriented behavior, particularly in formulating a revenge plan against Turpin. Continuing, his behavior becomes increasingly unpredictable, demonstrated by the rising frequency and violence of his killings and unpredictable mood shifts. And ultimately, Todd's primary focus lies in the broader goal of enacting revenge rather than fretting over intricate details of how. In fact, one study found that individuals with a heightened sense of power (akin to Todd’s intense pursuit of revenge) were more prone to taking risks due to their perception of a greater likelihood of success in their decisions compared to those lacking a sense of power (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). Even when discussing small amounts of power, individuals still often exhibit concerning behavioral tendencies, such as increases in hypocrisy (where those with small amounts of power engage in actions that contradict their professed values or standards), moral exceptionalism (leading individuals to perceive themselves as exempt from the moral constraints that apply to others), and egocentricity (an exaggerated sense of self-importance and an inclination to prioritize personal interests over collective well-being; Gruenfeld et al., 2003). This self-centered mindset can foster decision-making that disregards the broader consequences for others, reflecting a diminished capacity for empathy.

Robertson (2013) draws a very interesting parallel to the world of gambling, offering a tangible analogy to the consequences of unchecked power. The belief among many gamblers that they can control the roll of the dice serves as a metaphor for the illusion of control that often accompanies positions of power. Just as gamblers may erroneously believe they can manipulate chance, individuals in power may overestimate their ability to control outcomes, leading to decisions that prioritize their interests without due consideration for the broader consequences. This expanded understanding of the consequences of unrestrained power underscores the intricate interplay between authority, behavior, and decision-making processes. The parallels between fictional narratives, such as the story of Sweeney Todd, and real-world contexts highlight the universality of these dynamics and offer a more comprehensive understanding of their implications.

Psychological Analysis Through Storytelling

“The more he bleeds, the more he lives. He never forgets and he never forgives. Perhaps today you gave a nod. To Sweeney Todd the Demon Barber of Fleet Street.” (Sondheim, 1979, 1:30).

In conclusion, Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a poignant example of the value of viewing media through a more analytical lens. Employing psychological analysis, the show prompts contemplation on the fragility of human needs, the complexities of revenge, and the consequences of unchecked power. Sweeney Todd's haunting tale invites us to reflect on enduring themes that resonate across both fiction and reality. This dual perspective not only deepens our appreciation for the artistry and craftsmanship involved but also enhances our ability to navigate and comprehend the complexities of the world reflected in the stories we encounter. This, in turn, fosters critical thinking and cultural awareness beyond surface-level enjoyment.

References

Anderson, C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2006). Power, optimism, and risk-taking. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(4), 511–536. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.324

Berman, M. N. (2011). Two kinds of retributivism. In R. A. Duff & S. Green (Eds.), Philosophical foundations of criminal law (pp. 433–457). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559152.003.0019  

Burton, N. (2012). Our hierarchy of needs. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201205/our-hierarchy-needs 

Burton, T. (Director). 2007. Sweeney Todd: The demon barber of fleet street [Film]. Warner Bros. 

Galinsky, A. D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Magee, J. C. (2003). From power to action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.453

Galinsky, A. D., Magee, J. C., Gruenfeld, D. H., Whitson, J. A., & Liljenquist, K. A. (2008). Power reduces the press of the situation: implications for creativity, conformity, and dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1450–1466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012633

Geeraets, V. (2021). The enduring pertinence of the basic principle of retribution. Ratio Juris, 34(4), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/raju.12330 

Gollwitzer, M., & Denzler, M. (2009). What makes revenge sweet: Seeing the offender suffer or delivering a message? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 840–844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.001  

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Robertson, I. (2013). How power affects the brain? The British Psychological Society. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/how-power-affects-brain 

Seltzer, L. (2014). Don’t confuse revenge with justice: Five key differences. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/evolution-the-self/201402/don-t-confuse-revenge-justice-five-key-differences

Smith, P. K., & Trope. Y. (2006). You focus on the forest when you’re in charge of the trees: Power priming and abstract information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 578–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.578

Sondheim, S. (Director) (2007). Sweeney Todd: The demon barber of fleet street [film]. Warner Bros.

Sondheim, S. (Director) (1979). Sweeney Todd: The demon barber of fleet street.

Struhl, K. J., & Kimora. (2015). When young people break the law: Debating issues on punishment for juveniles (pp. 104–128). International Debate Education Association.

Hope Fogel is currently completing her bachelor’s degree in psychology, sociology, and creative writing at Drew University. She aims to use her love of musical theatre and storytelling to make psychological concepts increasingly accessible and palatable for wider audiences. Ultimately her goal is to spread information and foster self-reflection through possible new vehicles.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Close your eyes and imagine sour foods, like sour gummy candies or lemons… notice anything? If you felt a mouthwatering sensation you’re not alone. In fact, I commonly suggest that participants imagine eating something sour to aid in saliva sampling. Although the integration of saliva in psychological research emerged in the 1990s, the pandemic really highlighted the usefulness of noninvasive biospecimen, such as spit. In a recent interview (Coker, 2022), Dr. Michael Hoyt, the Director of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Salivary Bioscience Research (IISBR) at the University of California, Irvine, boasted about the benefits of using saliva saying, “It’s not invasive. We don’t have to stick someone with a needle. You know, COVID furthered the dialogue.”

As scientists grappled with pandemic-related restrictions in 2020, ethical concerns arose regarding participant and researcher risk of viral infection when coming into the laboratory. Many scientists approached barriers to data collection with innovative revisions to existing protocols, including utilizing self-collection procedures for biospecimens. Both the approachability of self-collection and the expansion of the field of salivary bioscience have facilitated advancements in scientists’ ability to pursue novel and complex research questions. Namely, the inclusion of salivary biospecimens in psychological research has supported research questions that include multiple levels of analysis (e.g., psychosocial and biological). Studies that utilize multiple levels of analysis are critical in advancing the field and augmenting the generalizability of study findings (Farre & Rapley, 2017; Suls et al., 2013; Suls & Rothman, 2004).

Opportunities in salivary bioscience have helped pave the way for new empirical questions in traditionally nonbiology-related subfields, such as in social psychology, giving researchers the ability to explore factors that explain how biology, psychology, and well-being are related (Hamilton et al., 2022). For example, a researcher could assess changes in stress hormones following a social evaluative stressor among women with posttraumatic stress disorder (Metz et al., 2020). Alternatively, one could investigate alterations in inflammatory markers among depressed individuals (Yui et al., 2022). In this way, researchers can make use of an objective measure to understand how psychological processes get under the skin to affect health.

Why Saliva?

Many researchers find salivary measures appealing because a wide range of analytes (i.e., biological measures that can be indexed from saliva) can be obtained from a single sample. Such analytes include hormones, and markers of inflammation, sleep, cellular aging, and even the epigenome. Saliva can also index diversity within the oral microbiome, infection, the presence of COVID-19 antibodies, and harmful environmental exposures further expanding the levels of analysis made possible with spit. Dr. Jenna Riis, Assistant Professor of Kinesiology and Community Health at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, stated in a recent interview (Coker, 2022), “[Saliva] allows me to examine the body’s response to adversity by looking at changes in multiple physiological systems dynamically across time and with minimal burden to my participants”. Most famously, salivary analytes like cortisol have been used to assess acute physiological stress responses, indexing how stress-related systems activate and then recover following a laboratory stressor task or a natural stressor experienced in the real-world.

Given the wide range analytes that can be obtained from spit, it is no surprise that the inclusion of saliva in psychological research may foster interdisciplinary work, where experts within the various subfields of psychology can collaborate with endocrinologists, biomedical engineers, statisticians, and clinicians to advance science in new ways. Dr. Hoyt contends (Coker, 2022), “I couldn’t do this [research] without talking to my medical collaborators, with my immunology colleagues, social scientists, public health professionals, my biology folks. It takes that team.” Benefits are also seen regarding participant burden, acceptance, and adherence as there is evidence that suggests that saliva sampling may have higher acceptance compared to other more invasive biological sampling methods, which could help support diversity among research participants.

Another notable benefit is that which with some training, saliva can be collected by participants at nearly any feasible location (e.g., at home, work, school), mitigating the need for a traditional laboratory environment and increasing the ecological validity of the measurement. Importantly, because of how easily spit can be obtained, it allows for the collection of multiple samples within a short amount of time. Dr. Riis highlights this benefit saying (Coker, 2022), “Because saliva can be self-collected in the field, salivary bioscience provides unique opportunities to learn about the health and well-being of communities in real time—making the potential application of salivary bioscience to health surveillance, monitoring, assessment and interventions very exciting.”

Being able to collect biospecimens in this way is particularly useful with dyadic research, where an investigator may be interested in collecting biospecimens from multiple participants at the exact same time, such as in mother–child or spouse–spouse dyads. In relation to acceptability and adherence, saliva collection is often preferred among child participants, where passive drool (the gold standard for saliva collection, which involves drooling into a vial with a straw) is far more attractive than a needle.

Things to Consider

The inclusion of saliva in psychological research requires several considerations at the research design, data collection, sample processing and analytic phases. First, time of day, time of waking, and time between saliva samples are important details when investigating biomeasures that are affected by diurnal and circadian rhythms (e.g., melatonin). Second, researchers should consider the method of collection (e.g., passive drool vs. oral swab), the collection device type, and the number of samples to be collected. Investigators must also decide how they will transport samples and what their long- and short-term storage options will be. Some analytes such as testosterone require the coldest of environments, where -80°C is recommended for long-term storage. These decisions can greatly impact the costs associated with saliva collection and will inform the types of research questions that can be pursued. Dr. Hamilton and colleagues (2022) have previously detailed additional considerations surrounding saliva collection procedures that will be especially helpful for junior scientists who are in the development stages of their research projects. Finally, data management and statistical approaches that are unique to salivary data are critical to project success.

Advances in statistical approaches have expanded the usefulness of saliva in psychological science. To illustrate, growth curve modeling and group-based trajectory modeling may be fitting for salivary data as these techniques allow for the investigation of analyte change over the course of a day, a laboratory visit, or even across the life-course. Researchers can investigate this change both within individuals (i.e., how one individual changes from baseline) and between individuals (how groups of individuals compare in their change from baseline). Fortunately, the vast increase in research that includes salivary measures has inspired a wave of publications that inform investigators of the various analytic approaches in handling salivary data (Ahmadi et al., 2021; Riis, Ahmadi, Hamilton, Bryce, et al., 2021; Riis, Ahmadi, Hamilton, Hand, et al., 2021; Segerstrom & Boggero, 2020). Students who are interested in this line of work should seek workshops and courses, such as free webinars offered by the American Psychological Association, that teach various statistical approaches for repeated measures data.

Tips for Junior Researchers Interested in Salivary Bioscience

This blog post aims to illuminate supportive resources for Psi Chi members who are considering the vast options in psychological research and points to one avenue that may support the development of innovative research ideas. If you are a student who is considering graduate school and you wish to gain detailed instruction in salivary bioscience, consider seeking graduate programs with specialized training, such as the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the University of Wisconsin-Maddison, Penn State University, or the University of California, Irvine—all of which house saliva wet labs. Furthermore, as junior scientists, we are conscientiously weaving together components of our academic agenda; knowing what options exist can help us make decisions about the types of training we will need for our desired careers, including choosing the right statistical courses and seminars that will expand our investigative proficiencies. Because research with salivary measures often facilitates interdisciplinary collaboration, I suggest students consider learning strategies, such as team science approaches, to support building relationships across disciplines. This interdisciplinary relationship building could not only help increase the impact of your work but could also help with networking when seeking post-doc or post-grad positions. Finally, research projects that include biological/physiological measures in tandem with psychosocial measures align with values of several funding agencies like the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, which may be especially advantageous for junior researchers interested in predoctoral and doctoral fellowships from these agencies. Importantly, these fellowships tend to offer higher stipends than what may be offered from a given university and are typically funded throughout the summer months. In some cases, a stipend is available to support student research, which could help fund the inclusion of salivary measures.

Conclusion

Salivary bioscience is a fast-developing tool for psychological research that will contribute to major advancements in the field and to the generalizability of results. Because of its minimally invasive nature, saliva sampling may enhance diversity of participants more so than other biospecimen sampling methods. The field of psychology is growing in new and exciting ways, augmenting graduate training to allow for the inclusion of biological measures like saliva will prepare the next generation of scientists to meaningfully contribute to empirical research.

Psi Chi members interested in learning more may look to the resources linked in this blog post. In particular, the historical summary by Hamilton et al. (2022) is a great place to start.

References

Ahmadi, H., Granger, D. A., Hamilton, K. R., Blair, C., & Riis, J. L. (2021). Censored data considerations and analytical approaches for salivary bioscience data. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105274

Coker, M. (2022). Window into the body. IISBR researchers champion the use of spit in diagnostics. UCI School of Social Ecology. https://socialecology.uci.edu/news/window-body

Farre, A., & Rapley, T. (2017). The new old (and old new) medical model: Four decades navigating the biomedical and psychosocial understandings of health and illness. Healthcare, 5(4), 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare5040088

Hamilton, K. R., Granger, D. A., & Taylor, M. K. (2022). Science of interdisciplinary salivary bioscience: History and future directions. Biomarkers in Medicine, 16(14), 1077–1087. https://doi.org/10.2217/bmm-2022-0452

Metz, S., Duesenberg, M., Hellmann-Regen, J., Wolf, O. T., Roepke, S., Otte, C., & Wingenfeld, K. (2020). Blunted salivary cortisol response to psychosocial stress in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 130, 112–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.07.014

Riis, J. L., Ahmadi, H., Hamilton, K. R., Bryce, C. I., Blair, C., & Granger, D. A. (2021). The case for the repeatability intra-class correlation as a metric of precision for salivary bioscience data: Justification, assessment, application, and implications. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105203

Riis, J. L., Ahmadi, H., Hamilton, K. R., Hand, T., & Granger, D. A. (2021). Best practice recommendations for the measurement and interpretation of salivary proinflammatory cytokines in biobehavioral research. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 91, 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.09.009

Segerstrom, S. C., & Boggero, I. A. (2020). Expected estimation errors in studies of the cortisol awakening response: A simulation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 82(8), 751–756. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000850

Suls, J., Krantz, D. S., & Williams, G. C. (2013). Three strategies for bridging different levels of analysis and embracing the biopsychosocial model. Health Psychology, 32(5), 597–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031197

Suls, J., & Rothman, A. (2004). Evolution of the biopsychosocial model: Prospects and challenges for health psychology. Health Psychology, 23(2), 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.23.2.119

Yui, S., Sasayama, D., Yamaguchi, M., & Washizuka, S. (2022). Altered levels of salivary cytokines in patients with major depressive disorder. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 221, 107390. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CLINEURO.2022.107390

Olivia Silke (she/her), MA, is a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellow and fifth-year PhD candidate in Health Psychology at the University of California, Irvine. She researches maternal-child health and has nearly seven years of training in salivary bioscience.

The first two years of life encompasses significant amounts of physical and cognitive growth (Berger, 2020). As infants venture through their first year on earth, they begin to reach developmental milestones such as learning how to walk, crawl, speak, and play (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). By their second year of life, toddlers become more aware of their surroundings and start to explore the world around them as their sense of independence grows (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). The series of changes that an infant experiences in the first two years of life is portrayed in the film, Life as We Know It.

The movie Life as We Know It (Berlanti, 2010) follows Holly Berenson, an owner of a small bakery in Atlanta, and Eric Messer, a rising television technical sports director for the notorious Atlanta Hawks. After a failed first date that was set up by their friends, Peter and Alison Novack, Holly and Eric hope to never meet again. However, after the sudden and tragic death of the Novacks, Holly and Eric discover that they were given joint custody of their friends’ baby, Sophie, forcing them to work together to raise the child. As Holly and Eric learn to put their differences aside to best take care of Sophie, the audience gets to witness the developmental changes that she experiences during her first two years of life.

Physical Development

To begin, Life as We Know It portrays the body changes, or physical growth, that infants and toddlers experience during the first two years of life. Specifically, at the time of her birth, Sophie was very tiny, weighing only a couple of pounds. By the time she turned two, Sophie was double her size, standing taller and weighing more than twice as much as she did when she was born (Berlanti, 2010). The physical growth that infants experience during their first two years of life is very rapid. Body weight and height triples from the time they were born until they reach twelve months (Berger, 2020). Furthermore, when a child reaches their second birthday, they should weigh approximately twenty percent of their adult weight and should be nearly half their adult height (Berger, 2020). Although averages are largely meant as guidelines, failure to meet these averages could be a warning that an infant’s physical growth is delayed. Delayed growth can impact a child’s development over time. For example, children who physically grow at a slower rate or later than the average child may experience a delay in the development of motor skills, such as walking, and may develop social and cognitive skills at a slower rate (Alli, 2023)

Moreover, we witness Sophie develop a wide range of motor skills. Motor skills are any learned movement of the body, such as walking, crawling, blinking, and wiggling toes (Berger, 2020). Motor skills can be divided into two subcategories: gross and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills refer to the movement of larger muscles in the body, such as walking, sitting unsupported, and jumping, whereas fine motor skills involve the movement of smaller muscle groups like grasping, reaching, and movement of fingers and toes (Berger, 2020; Gonzalez et al., 2019). Throughout the film, we see the development of Sophie’s gross and fine motor skills as she starts to crawl around the house, attempts to walk on her own, grasps at objects (e.g., her grandfather’s oxygen tube), and plays with her stuffed duck. By 15 months, her gross motor skills expanded as she begins to stand, walk, and run independently (Berlanti, 2010). The development of motor skills allows infants to have the ability to participate in physical activities and begin to become more independent (Logsdon, 2022). In fact, strong gross motor skills are associated with better physical well-being, participation in sports, and the ability to complete basic everyday responsibilities (e.g., putting on shoes and pants) while strong fine motor skills are linked to literacy and numeracy skills, such as writing letters and solving mathematical problems (Cinar et al., 2023). Thus, delays in motor skill development can affect a child’s physical and academic performance and their ability to complete daily tasks (Logsdon, 2022).

Cognitive Development

Not only does the audience witness Sophie’s motor skills grow, but they also get to see her language skills develop. During the first half of the film, Sophie did not speak. Instead, Sophie communicated with Holly and Eric by babbling, cooing, fussing, crying, laughing, and pointing. By the end of the movie (as she was reaching age two), Sophie’s language abilities expanded to include some words (e.g., “mama”). A newborn baby typically cries, coos, and babbles until they are twelve months old. During this period, babies actively listen to the people around them and slowly begin to acquire new sounds and comprehend some words. Then, by their first birthday, an average infant finally speaks their first word followed by the growth in vocabulary from thirteen months until their second birthday. Finally, when an average toddler turns two, they should be able to speak multi-word sentences in their native language (Berger, 2020). During early childhood, it is essential for infants to meet the language developmental milestones for their age; inability to do so can greatly hinder their future cognitive and social development. According to the National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (2023), infants and young children with delayed language development may experience difficulties forming sentences, learning new words, and communicating with other; they may make frequent grammar mistakes when talking; and they may not fully understand what others are saying to them. Once these children grow older, they may experience reading difficulties, have frequent grammatical and spelling errors, and may be limited in their vocabulary and sentence structure. Given this, it is important for parents to talk to and interact with their children from birth in hopes to decrease the likelihood of language delays.

Social and Emotional Development

Besides developing physically and beginning to acquire language, Sophie also grows socially and emotionally. More specifically, the first step of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development, trust versus mistrust, is evident during her growth. In short, trust versus mistrust theorizes that, from birth to age one, babies trust that others, such as their caregivers, will tend to their basic needs, such as feeding them and providing them with physical contact, or else they will develop mistrust toward the people and the world around them because of the neglect in care that they had received (Berger, 2020). During the film, Sophie would cry and scream when she needed something from her caregivers (e.g., when she was hungry, tired, or needed her diaper changed). Anytime Sophie got hysterical, Eric and Holly would work together to determine what it was that she needed, and then satisfy her (Berlanti, 2010). Given their quick response to her needs, it can be inferred that Sophie developed a sense of trust in Eric and Holly. Undoubtedly, the establishment of trust between a child and its parents can tremendously influence their social and emotional development; it affects how they perceive the world around them and how they form relationships with others. In fact, adults raised by parents who consistently failed to provide them with their basic needs and necessities were more likely to experience fear and skepticism of others (Murphy et al., 2015). Moreover, children who develop a sense of mistrust often feel depressed, suspicious of their peers, lonely, and detached from society (Cherry, 2022). As it can be seen, it is imperative that parents tend to the needs of their infants; their failure or inability to do so can affect the infant's ability to trust others later in life.

Finally, Life as We Know It illustrates how infants form an attachment, or bond, with their caregivers during their infancy. Specifically, Sophie begins to develop a bond with her new caregivers, Holly and Eric; Sophie's attachment to them can be seen after Eric decided to leave Holly in Atlanta to pursue a job opportunity in Phoenix, Arizona. In particular, when Eric visits Holly’s bakery in Atlanta to pick Sophie up for his turn in parenting and caring for her, Sophie excitedly runs to him when he enters the bakery. Moreover, as Eric leaves the bakery with her, Sophie can be seen waving good-bye to Holly (Berlanti, 2010). During infancy, developing a secure attachment style, a relationship with a caregiver where an infant receives both comfort and confidence, is essential for later development (Berger, 2020). According to Karakaş and Dağlı (2019), failure to obtain secure attachment in infancy may result in poor adolescent behavior as a result of a lack of familial bonding, thus impacting one's ability to form both social and romantic relationships with others later in life. Given this, it is essential for caregivers to form a bond with the infant after birth to help enhance their growth and development later in life. 

Conclusion

In summary, the film Life as We Know It portrays the immense amount of growth and development that infants experience during their first two years of life. Some aspects of infant development portrayed in the movie include: physical growth and development, the development of motor skills, the acquisition of language, cognitive development, and the forming of attachments with others. The development that occurs from birth to the age of two is essential for the future growth and development of children; it provides the foundation that children need to continue to acquire the knowledge and skills they need to be successful later in life. As it can be seen, it is imperative that all parents ensure that they provide their infant with a loving, safe, and stable environment to properly aid the extensive development that their child endures during their first two years of life.

References

Alli, R. (2023, September 4). What to know about growth disorders. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/children/what-to-know-about-growth-disorders

Berger, K. S. (2020). Developing person through childhood and adolescence (12th ed.). Macmillan Higher Education. https://reader.yuzu.com/books/9781319352516

Berlanti, G. (2010). Life as we know it [Film]. Village Roadshow Pictures. Gold Circle Films.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Toddlers (1–2 years of age). Center for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/toddlers.html#:~:text=Children%20reach%20milestones%20in%20how,and%20people%20also%20is%20increasing

Cherry, K. (2022). Trust vs. mistrust: psychosocial stage 1. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/trust-versus-mistrust-2795741

Cinar, E., Fitzpatrick, C., Almeida, M. L., Camden, C., & Garon-Carrier, G. (2023). Motor skills are more strongly associated to academic performance for girls than boys. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 38(3), 252–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735231173518

Gonzalez, S. L., Alvarez, V., & Nelson, E. L. (2019). Do gross and fine motor skills differentially contribute to language outcomes? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02670

Karakaş, N. M., & Dağlı, F. Ş. (2019). The importance of attachment in infant and influencing factors. Turk Pediatri Arsivi, 54(2), 76–81. https://doi.org/10.14744/TurkPediatriArs.2018.80269

Logsdon, A. (2022). Gross motor skill development and delays in childhood. Verywell Family. https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-are-gross-motor-skills-2162137

Murphy, G., Peters, K., Wilkes, L., & Jackson, D. (2015). Childhood parental mental illness: living with fear and mistrust. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 36(4), 294–299. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2014.971385

National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2023). Developmental language disorder. National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/developmental-language-disorder

Amber Fisgaer is a fourth year criminal justice major at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After graduation, she plans to further her education and obtain her Master's degree. Besides being a student, Amber is also a three sport athlete at Holy Family University where she runs Cross Country, Indoor Track, and Outdoor Track.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Prenatal development encompasses the greatest period of growth and development during the complete life span. Starting from the moment of conception all the way through birth, the prenatal fetus grows from a single-celled structure into a baby with arms, legs, a brain, and other organs needed to live a healthy life (Berger, 2020). Given the intense amount of growth that a fetus undergoes in prenatal development, it is essential for soon-to-be mothers to provide a safe and healthy environment for their baby while they are in her womb; in order for a baby to properly grow and develop while in the womb and be healthy from the first few minutes of life, expecting mothers must be vigilant with their everyday routines and behaviors to ensure they are not hindering their baby’s prenatal development and to have a successful birth (Berger, 2020). Evidently, this stage of development is categorized by a number of constructs. The various constructs surrounding prenatal development are exhibited throughout the movie Baby Mama.

The 2008 film, Baby Mama, centers around the life of Katherine “Kate” Holbroke, a successful single businesswoman who's yearning to have a child of her own. After discovering that she is infertile and being denied the opportunity to adopt, Kate seeks help from a surrogacy agency with the hopes of making her dream come true. Ultimately, Kate hires Angela “Angie” Ostrowski, a high school dropout, as her surrogate and allows Angie to live with her when she is kicked out of her apartment by her ex. Unknown to Kate, Angie’s in-vitro fertilization was not successful; instead, Angie was pretending to be carrying Kate’s baby. During her scam, Angie discovers that she was indeed pregnant, but she was carrying her ex-husband's baby. Before and while this all unfolds, the various constructs of prenatal development are evident as Kate and Angie work together to ensure Angie’s pregnancy is successful.

To begin, Baby Mama demonstrates how in-vitro fertilization (IVF) can influence conception. Specifically, IVF was used to help Kate with her infertility problems. Kate chose not to undergo IVF herself because her T-shaped uterus lowered the chances of her becoming pregnant, so her surrogate, Angie, underwent the procedure to be able to carry Kate’s baby for her. During IVF, ova (i.e., multiple eggs) are taken from a woman’s ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a laboratory setting. The fertilized ovum (i.e., one egg) or ova are then transferred into the uterus of the carrier, with hopes that implantation will occur (Mayo Clinic, 2023). Although IVF is used as a means for infertile couples to conceive, conception is not guaranteed. According to Penn Medicine (2023), chances of successful implantation through IVF are not very high. Specifically, it was reported that women under 35 years of age have slightly over a 20% success rate, and women over 35 years of age only have a 17% success rate with IVF. Unfortunately, none of Kate's fertilized ova that were transferred into Angie actually implanted into her uterus.

Moreover, Baby Mama exemplifies how imperative it is for pregnant women to avoid teratogens. Teratogens are agents or conditions, such as viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can harm a fetus during prenatal development, causing birth defects, developmental delays, or even death (Berger, 2020). Specifically, when Kate discovered that Angie had been smoking, she was (reasonably!) concerned about the potential harm that the tobacco could cause to the developing fetus (McCullers, 2008). In fact, smoking during pregnancy can pose numerous health problems to a developing fetus. Specifically, when a pregnant woman smokes, over 7,000 chemicals are inhaled into the body and enter the woman’s bloodstream. Then, these toxins are passed on to the fetus through the umbilical cord. Consequently, the chemicals from the tobacco interfere with a DNA methylation, a process that controls gene-expression (Fragou et al., 2019). Undoubtedly, the impacts that smoking can have on gene-expression can pose severe consequences on prenatal development. For instance, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022), smoking during pregnancy increases the likelihood of preterm birth (i.e., being born too early), damage to the baby’s lungs and brain, and birth defects (e.g., cleft lip or cleft palate). As can be seen, avoiding teratogens is crucial in order to have a successful pregnancy; if Kate had not intervened and stopped Angie from smoking cigarettes while she was pregnant, the fetus could have suffered serious harm.

In addition to protection against teratogens, the importance of adopting healthy nutritional habits during pregnancy is also displayed throughout the movie. For instance, Kate caught Angie eating junk food and drinking sugary drinks. Concerned about her future baby’s health, Kate argued with Angie about the importance of healthy eating during pregnancy and even offered to buy Angie organic food (McCullers, 2008). During pregnancy, it is vital for women to make sure they get enough healthy nutrients by following a healthy diet and by taking prenatal supplements. In short, a pregnant woman should have a diet rich in protein, iron, folic acid, calcium, and vitamin D, and should minimize the consumption of sugary and processed food and drinks (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2023). Implementing these nutrients into their diet during pregnancy can have profound impacts on the development of the fetus. Specifically, a diet filled with nutrients can help prevent low birth weight, premature birth, and birth defects while also promoting healthy development of the brain, tissues, and other major organs (Jouanne et al., 2021). Meanwhile, a diet that lacks these key nutrients can pose adverse effects to the growth and development of the baby. According to Marshall and colleagues (2022), an overall poor diet during pregnancy can result in fetal malformations and delayed cognitive development; maternal undernutrition (i.e., lack of protein and vitamins) can result in preterm or stillbirth, a low birth weight and greatly disrupt a baby’s ability to grow and develop; and maternal overnutrition with surgery and fatty foods can result in a high birth weight and can pose future health problems for the fetus later in life, such as childhood obesity and inflammatory diseases. Given the importance of proper nutrition in prenatal development, it is unsurprising that Kate was adamant about Angie’s healthier eating habits.

Baby Mama also demonstrates how pregnancy can result in maternal stress for soon-to-be mothers; Angie experienced anxiety and nervousness throughout the stages of pregnancy. For instance, Angie was struggling with financial difficulties, often relying on the pay checks she would receive as a result of being a surrogate. Additionally, Angie was thrown out of the apartment that she and her ex-husband shared. Thankfully, Kate often helped Angie cope with these stressors by providing her a place to stay and food to eat during her pregnancy (McCullers, 2008). Maternal stress refers to any type of stress a woman experiences during pregnancy, stemming from pregnancy fears, problems that arise from day-to-day life, or sudden life changes (McGill University, 2013). Stress during pregnancy can have negative effects on prenatal development. Specifically, when an individual experiences stress, the body releases stress hormones, such as cortisol, into the bloodstream. However, these stress hormones can pass from the mother to the fetus through the placenta, thus putting the developing fetus at risk if exposed to high amounts of stress hormones (McGill University, 2013). Babies that are exposed to an excessive amount of stress hormones in the womb have a higher likelihood to be born preterm and may experience attachment issues, stress hyper-responsiveness, or asthma (Coussons-Read, 2013). Clearly, maternal stress can have serious impacts on prenatal development, thus, it is crucial that soon-to-be mothers discover new ways to cope with life stressors, similar to Kate and Angie in Baby Mama.

Finally, Baby Mama showcases how a fetus can be delivered preterm. Specifically, Angie gave birth to her baby three weeks early (McCullers, 2008). A preterm birth occurs when a baby is born two or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of pregnancy (Berger, 2020). Due to the growth and development that takes place in the womb being cut short, preterm babies are at a greater risk of suffering from long-term health effects. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022), babies born preterm may suffer from breathing problems, feeding difficulties, vision and hearing problems, developmental (e.g., language, learning, physical) delays or may even die shortly after birth. Evidently, preterm birth can pose health and developmental dangers to babies; however, some preterm babies are born happy and healthy, like Angie’s baby born in Baby Mama. 

In conclusion, the film Baby Mama portrays a number of prenatal development constructs, some of which include: in-vitro fertilization, safeguarding a fetus from teratogens, making sure a growing fetus gets proper nutrition from the mother, maternal stress, and preterm birth. These constructs are some of the most crucial features of prenatal development, with each playing a role in how successful a baby grows and develops inside and outside the womb.

References

Berger, K. S. (2020). Developing person through childhood and adolescence (12th ed.). Macmillan Higher Education.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Preterm birth. https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/pretermbirth.htm

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Smoking, pregnancy, and babies. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/pregnancy.html#smoking-harm.

Coussons-Read M. E. (2013). Effects of prenatal stress on pregnancy and human development: mechanisms and pathways. Obstetric Medicine, 6(2), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753495X12473751

Fragou, D., Pakkidi, E., Aschner, M., Samanidou, V., & Kovatsi, L. (2019). Smoking and DNA methylation: Correlation of methylation with smoking behavior and association with diseases and fetus development following prenatal exposure. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 129, 312–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.059

Jouanne, M., Oddoux, S., Noël, A., & Voisin-Chiret, A. S. (2021). Nutrient requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Nutrients, 13(2), 692. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020692

Marshall, N. E., Abrams, B., Barbour, L. A., Catalano, P., Christian, P., Friedman, J. E., Hay, W. W., Jr, Hernandez, T. L., Krebs, N. F., Oken, E., Purnell, J. Q., Roberts, J. M., Soltani, H., Wallace, J., & Thornburg, K. L. (2022). The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: lifelong consequences. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 226(5), 607–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2021.12.035

Mayo Clinic (2023, September 1). In vitro fertilization (IVF). https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/in-vitro-fertilization/about/pac-20384716

McCullers, M. (2008). Baby Mama [Film]. Relativity Media.

McGill University. (2013, January 31). What is prenatal maternal stress? Stress in Pregnancy International Research Alliance. https://www.mcgill.ca/spiral/spiral/prenatal-stress#:~:text=Prenatal%20maternal%20stress%20refers%20to,women’s%20daily%20routine%20or%20environment

Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2023, May 19). Eat healthy during pregnancy: quick tips. https://health.gov/myhealthfinder/pregnancy/nutrition-and-physical-activity/eat-healthy-during-pregnancy-quick-tips

Penn Medicine. (2023). IVF by the numbers. https://www.pennmedicine.org/updates/blogs/fertility-blog/2018/march/ivf-by-the-numbers

Ashley Fisgaeris a fourth-year criminal justice major at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After graduation, she plans to obtain a job in a law firm as a legal assistant. Ashley is a proud member of Holy Family's cross country and track team.

Follow Ashley on Instagram and X at @ashleyfisgaer.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

Into the Woods (Marshall, 2014) takes the fairy tales we all grew up with and tweaks them into one reimagined story. Adapted from Steven Sondehim’s 1987 Broadway production, the musical begins with a childless baker and his wife being sent on a quest by a witch to retrieve four magical items: a cow as white as milk, a cape as red as blood, hair as yellow as corn, and a slipper as pure as gold. The witch reveals that she cursed the baker’s family to be childless because the baker’s father stole her magical beans. If the baker and his wife can retrieve these four items in under three days, she will undo the curse, and their wish to have a child will be granted. As the baker and his wife enter the woods to find these mysterious items, they run into a wild cast of fairy tale characters along the way. Throughout the journey, the musical conveys that our actions and choices can come with severe consequences and impact the people around us. Into the Woods is filled with various underlying psychological themes. The three most prominent in the movie are (1) parent–child relationships, (2) infidelity, and (3) resilience.

Parent and Child Relationships

Parent–child relationships can be characterized as the connection between an individual and their biological offspring or between an individual and a child they have adopted legally (Mihalec-Adkins, 2020). In the musical, two parent–child relationships significantly stood out: Rapunzel and the witch, and the baker and his son.

As in the classic tale, the witch kidnaps Rapunzel as an infant and locks her in a tower, leading Rapunzel to believe that the witch is her biological mother. Therefore, it would be no surprise that the parenting approach the witch uses is immensely controlling, overbearing, and overprotective. When a parent or guardian is overparenting in these specific ways, it can be difficult for the child to become independent and competent fully on their own (Lobel, 2022). Eventually, a prince is drawn to Rapunzel’s singing; he climbs her hair, and a romance develops. The prince poses a threat to the witch, as he can offer Rapunzel an escape away from her, allowing Rapunzel to learn how to be independent without the witch. When Rapunzel realistically refuses to spend the rest of her life alone locked in a tall tower with the witch, the witch retaliates by cutting off Rapunzel's long hair and banishing her to a swamp. Rapunzel’s relationship with her mother shows the long-lasting damaging effects of over-controlling parenting (Lobel, 2022) and emphasizes the need for healthier parenting to help children become independent.

At the beginning of Act 2, the baker and his wife finally have the child they have longed for (Marshall, 2014). However, the baker’s wife dies shortly after, leaving the baker to raise his son alone. The baker grew up without a father, leaving him confused and uncertain about what to do with his son. Children who grow up without a father figure are left wounded, struggling with the absence of parental guidance and support, which can significantly affect their emotional well-being and development (Diamond, 2023). The baker worries that he will not be a good father since no one ever taught or prepared him on how to become a father or raise a child. At first, he is tempted to leave his child behind with Cinderella, claiming that he is not fit to be a father and that his son would be better off being cared for by a princess. Soon after, he realizes his wrongdoing and acknowledges that he has to break these generational patterns and embrace fatherhood for the sake of his newborn and departed wife.

The examples of parent–child relationships above reveal the major impact of parental dynamics on these characters' lives. Rapunzel's experience of being kidnapped by an over-controlling witch and the baker's internal struggle with fatherhood share a common theme: the impact of our upbringing. These two examples shed light on the important role of parenting in child development.

Infidelity

Infidelity (more commonly known as “cheating”) is when someone is disloyal, either emotionally or sexually (or both!) to their monogamous romantic partner (Rokach & Chan, 2023). When a partner experiences infidelity, it is common to question what is missing in the relationship (Lewandowski, 2021). However, it can be equally important to examine the motivations concerning why the infidelity occurred. Although infidelity is complex and highly individualized, there are several common motivations behind why people cheat: anger, esteem, lack of love, low commitment, need for variety, neglect, sexual desire, and situation (Lewandowski, 2021). It is also important to note that there are often multiple motivations.

In Into the Woods, infidelity is seen through the interaction between the baker's wife and Prince Charming. For the baker’s wife, her reasons for cheating appear to be neglect, the need for variety, and situational factors (Lewandowski, 2021). The baker becomes preoccupied with the mission to find the four magical items, often neglecting his wife's emotional needs (including her desire to undertake the quest as a team). She may also have been experiencing a need for variety; the baker’s wife has always dreamed of a “perfect fairytale life,” which is far different from her dull and routine lifestyle. When she sees that the prince is interested in her, she gives in to the fantasy experience. Situational factors may also be at play. In Into the Woods, the characters go through various challenging circumstances, which can make cheating more tempting (Campbell, 2014). The pressure from the witch to break the curse and find the four items could potentially make someone behave differently than they usually would, perhaps contributing to the baker's wife's decision to be unfaithful.

Since the baker’s wife cheated, that means the prince did too. The main motivation for his cheating is likely also a need for variety (Lewandowski, 2021). In Into the Woods, it is natural to think that Prince Charming is truly in love with Cinderella and that they will end up happily ever after. Well, that is far from what occurs. Even after the baker’s wife informs the prince that she is married, he continues to seduce her. People who cheat at least once on a partner are more likely to cheat again (Scott et al., 2017). This suggests that the prince is used to having relationships with other women and may be likely to cheat again. (Plus, he’s a bit of a narcissist, but that’s a topic for a different article!).

These motivational factors can help us understand some of the reasons why the baker’s wife and the prince cheated. These specific examples explain just a few of the various reasons behind infidelity and emphasize the importance of understanding the complex and multifaceted reasons behind why people often end up going outside their marriages.

Resilience

Resilience is the ability to adapt to difficult challenges that may get in the way, even if they affect our mental, emotional, or behavioral well-being (APA, 2022). Both the baker and Cinderella demonstrate profound resilience; even in difficult situations, they both power through and stay strong.

Not only did the baker grow up fatherless, but he also lost his mother when he was a child. When his wife dies, he is faced with the challenge of whether or not to raise their child on his own. When faced with a challenge, we can either run away from it or face it (Bernstein, 2023). The baker decides to face the challenge of becoming a new father instead of repeating a family cycle where his son will also grow up fatherless. Even though the baker found himself facing a situation he felt unprepared for, he demonstrated the strength and resilience to accept the situation and allow himself to learn and grow from it (Bernstein, 2023).

Cinderella has faced many hardships in her life, including being raised by a cruel stepmother and stepsisters. Even though Cinderella is belittled and treated unfairly, she remains hopeful for her future, dreaming that one day her life will get better. When someone is resilient, they can cope with difficult events, move forward, and continue functioning (Walker, 2020). Cinderella does just that; even though her stepmother and stepsisters constantly belittle her, she still has the strength and courage to attend the ball where she wins over the prince. Although they do not live happily ever after, it was ultimately her choice to end the relationship. By the end of the musical, Cinderella is no longer a servant or a princess, instead choosing to pursue a new life with the baker, his son, and Jack. While Cinderella faces many hardships, she never gives up and chooses to seek out a better life.

The baker and Cinderella both exhibit resilience—not by forgetting their challenges, but by using those challenges to become the best versions of themselves. The baker uses his previous struggles as motivation to not repeat the same mistakes. Cinderella recognizes that she owes nothing to anyone and deserves to live the kind of life she wants to live. Resilience is inspiring and the key to achieving personal growth, and the characters exhibit this.

Conclusion

Into the Woods takes characters from various classic fairy tales and integrates them to tell a captivating story that teaches many valuable lessons. Each character undergoes universal human experiences and faces difficulties many people can relate to. The musical shows the importance of raising children effectively, understanding the complexities of infidelity, and facing challenges by staying resilient. It also highlights the importance of teamwork, personal growth, and acceptance. In the real world, people can take the lessons shown throughout the musical and utilize them in everyday life.

References

American Psychological Association. (2022, May). Resilience. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience

Bernstein, B. (2023). How to face any challenge. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/be-your-best/201912/how-to-face-any-challenge#:~:text=If%20you%20choose%20to%20accept

Campbell, K. (2014, March 26). Why people cheat. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/more-chemistry/201403/why-people-cheat-their-partners

Diamond, J. (2023). Our fathers, ourselves: Healing the family father wound. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/gender-specific-health/202301/our-fathers-ourselves-healing-the-family-father-wound

Lewandowski, G. W. (2021). The 8 reasons why people cheat. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-psychology-relationships/202103/the-8-reasons-why-people-cheat

Lobel, D. S. (2022). Overparenting: Too much of a good thing. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/my-side-the-couch/202207/overparenting-too-much-good-thing

Marshall, R. (Director). (2014). Into the woods [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures.

Mihalec-Adkins, B. P. (2020). Parent–child relationships. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, 3433–3435. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1866

Rokach, A., & Chan, S. H. (2023). Love and infidelity: Causes and consequences. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(5), 3904. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20053904

Walker, B. H. (2020). Resilience: What it is and is not. Ecology and Society, 25(2). https://doi.org/10.5751/es-11647-250211

Ashley Keller is currently a third-year student at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA, with a Psychology major and a Childhood Studies minor. Ashley’s goal for the future is to become a pediatric occupational therapist, aiming to help children reclaim their ability to perform everyday tasks with confidence and resilience. In her free time, she enjoys baking, listening to music, and spending time with her friends and family.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

The history of psychology is filled with medical mysteries; conditions too enigmatic to properly diagnose, disorders too uncanny to comprehensively treat. Assisted by recent developments in science and technology, neuroscientists are seeking answers to such puzzling questions. The “Alice in Wonderland syndrome” illustrates the neuroscientific quest to study and explain abnormal perceptual abnormalities.

Case Studies

After years of suffering from severe and debilitating abdominal migraines (abdominal pain accompanied by migraine symptoms), a 20-year-old man started experiencing episodes in which objects around him seemed either unusually small and distant, or large and close. During these incidents, which occurred in between his migraine attacks, he also felt himself “shrinking” to the size of an index finger and heard people’s voices alternating from loud and close to faint and far (Hamed, 2010). Another individual, a 34-year-old woman with a history of epileptic seizures (uncontrolled brain activation), was hospitalized due to her complaints of visual disturbances, which included people shrinking and then magnifying, objects moving forward and then backward, and items shifting their appearance. She saw houses appearing as boxes, cars as small circles, and people as having “pink feathery faces” with long orange hair. She also heard the voices of children crying, playing, and praying, and at one point, felt as if her hands had become a set of piano keys (Philip et al., 2015). A third person, a 56-year-old man anguished with intense migraines, described his migraines as preceded by the sensation of a unicorn-like horn growing on his forehead (Landais & Michelin, 2019).

The Diagnosis

Although these strange perceptual disturbances are somewhat similar to the symptoms experienced by individuals who suffer from psychosis, they all coincide with a rare and unique neurological disorder known as the Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS). The term was coined by British psychiatrist J. Todd in 1955 in reference to Lewis Carroll's book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865). Todd’s patients, who suffered from illusory changes of magnitude, distance, body, and environment (similar to the ones described above), reminded him of Alice’s experiences in the fantasy realm of Wonderland, which include frequent alterations of size, shape, time, and space (Todd, 1955, in Blom, 2016).

The Symptoms

It is easy to see why Todd selected this term. Patients diagnosed with AIWS experience one or more of the following symptoms:

1. parts of/their whole body are perceived as larger (macrosomatognosia) or smaller (microsomatognosia) than usual;
2. objects/people around them seem too small (micropsia), too large (macropsia), too fat, thin, short or tall (metamorphopsia), too far (teleopsia) or too close (pelopsia);
3. they experience a sense of derealization, depersonalization, or somatopsychic duality (being split in two, often vertically—in the middle); and of
4. aberration in their judgment of time.

Other symptoms associated with AIWS include

1. achromatopsia (loss of color perception),
2. hyperchromatopsia (seeing colors as exceptionally bright),
3. prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces),
4. visual agnosia (inability to recognize objects),
5. kinetopsia (illusory movement of stationary objects),
6. akinetopsia (loss of ability to perceive motion),
7. entomopia (seeing multiple images, as if perceived through an insect’s eye),
8. palinopsia (the persistence of a visual image after the object has left the visual field),
9. illusory sense of levitation,
10. hyperacusia/hypoacusia (increased/decreased sound sensitivity), and
11. other complex visual hallucinations (Blom, 2016; Farooq & Fine, 2017; Liu et al., 2014; Mastria et al., 2016).

During her journey through Wonderland, Alice personifies many of these symptoms. First, she drinks from a peculiar bottle, which causes her to shrink (exemplifying macrosomatognosia). She then eats a cake, which causes her to grow unproportionally (microsomatognosia), followed by another episode of size reduction, which causes her to almost drown in the flood of tears generated by her oversized self just minutes ago. The astonishment caused by these occurrences is clear: “Curiouser and curiouser!’ cried Alice; now I’m opening out like the largest telescope that ever was! Good-bye feet!”, Carroll, 1865). Second, Alice seems to experience derealization, depersonalization, and even existential dread. In one part of the book, she states: “I almost think I can remember feeling a little different. But if I’m not the same, the next question is, who in the world am I?” Another part of the book describes her reaction to her metamorphosia: “That was a narrow escape!” said Alice, a good deal frightened at the sudden change, but very glad to find herself still in existence,” Carroll, 1865). Third, while falling down the rabbit-hole, Alice experiences time and/or space distortion (“Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had plenty of time as she went down to look about her and to wonder what was going to happen next,” Carroll, 1865).

The Creation of Alice’s Tale

The creation of Alice’s capturing tale could be solely attributed to Carroll’s vivid imagination. According to stories, Carroll (a pseudonym of the British mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson) conjured Alice’s escapades during a stroll that he took with his friend, Henry Liddell, and his three young daughters (Lorina Charlotte, Edith Mary, and Alice Pleasance, Douglas-Fairhurst, 2015). After he was convinced to write it down into a book, Carrol published a sequel titled Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (1871), in which he described Alice’s adventures in a reverse-logic mirror world.

Possible Causes

Several conditions have been identified as possible causes of AIWS. Some of the most common triggers to AIWS are headaches, migraines/migraine auras (symptoms that occur before or during a migraine), frontal/temporal lobe-epileptic seizures, infectious diseases (e.g., Epstein-Barr virus, typhoid encephalopathy), cerebrovascular diseases (e.g., ischemic stroke, cavernous angioma), cancerous growth (e.g., glioblastoma), and intoxication with substances such as LSD or certain cough syrups. AIWS symptoms can also be seen in patients suffering from schizophrenia, depression, and other psychiatric disorders (Mastria et al., 2016). Notably, Carroll himself suffered from severe migraines (Fine, 2013; Podoll & Robinson, 1999), which could have resulted in AIWS-symptoms and inspired him to create Alice’s narrative (Podoll & Robinson, 1999; O’Toole & Modestino, 2017). In other words, it is possible that “Alice trod the path of a wonderland well known to her creator” (Todd, 1955, in Podoll & Robinson, 1999).

Treatment Options

AIWS symptoms have been identified in children, teenagers, and adults (Liu et al, 2014). Reported cases of AIWS in both parents and children hint to a (yet unknown) genetic component implicated in AIWS (O’Toole & Modestino, 2017). The duration of the symptoms can last a few minutes, or it can persist for days and years. In some cases, AIWS has been indicated to turn into a lifelong condition. From a clinical standpoint, it is advised that AIWS treatment be directed at the suspected underlying condition. This mostly involves prescription with antiseizure medications, migraine prophylaxes, antiviral agents, or antibiotics. Unfortunately, in cases with an underlying chronic condition (e.g., migraines, epilepsy), the symptoms tend to recur in concordance with the disease’s active phases. Interestingly, when the symptoms are not associated with any identifiable pathology, reassurance that they are not harmful can by itself lead to remission. In fact, cases of spontaneous remission, achieved in the absence of treatment, have been described (Blom, 2016). It is important to recognize that patients’ reluctance to describe their symptoms (in fear of labeling) may impede its identification (Farooq & Fine, 2017). A careful examination of symptoms can help prevent the misdiagnosis of AIWS as psychosis, avoiding the referrals of patient to psychiatric evaluation, or prescription of antipsychotic medications, which can if fact exacerbate the symptoms (Farooq & Fine, 2017; O’Toole & Modestino, 2017).

Implicated Brain Areas

Although the exact brain regions and neural circuits which underly AIWS are yet undefined, brain imaging techniques highlight a few likely candidates. One such area is the temporo-parieto-occipital (TPO) junction, where the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes meet. This area of the brain integrates visual and somatosensory information related to the self. Damage to the area is thus predicted to alternate the balance between self-representation and the representation of the external world, generating an erroneous perception of body size with respect to the external environment (Mastria et al., 2016). Damage localized to the occipital lobes (where the primary visual cortex is situated) is associated with simple visual disturbances, while parietal lobes damage (where the primary somatosensory cortex is housed) is predicted to contribute to alternation in the perception of one’s body representation. Temporal lobe damage (home to the primary auditory cortex) is likely to cause auditory distortions, while frontal lobes damage (which provides a top-down modulation of visual pathway) may cause complex visual hallucinations (Blom, 2016; Farooq & Fine, 2017; Mastria et al., 2016; O’Toole & Modestino, 2017).

The Mad Hatter and the Dormouse

Interestingly, traces of other possible neurological syndromes can be found in Carroll’s book. One of the prominent examples is the Mad Hatter, who’s peculiar and eccentric behavior could result from mercury nitrate poisoning. Historically, inorganic mercury was used in the production of felt hats. It was regularly inhaled by hatters, and eventually was found to cause severe neurotoxic effects, including irritability, mental hyperactivity, outbursts of temper, and memory impairment (Park & Zheng, 2012). In a similar fashion, the dormouse, who falls asleep repeatedly (and is constantly and rudely awakened), could in fact be suffering from sleep apnea or from narcolepsy (Fine, 2013). Obstructive sleep apnea involves recurring episodes of upper airway obstruction during sleep. The restriction of airflow at the nose and mouth causes brief micro‐arousals, thus leading to sleep fragmentation, unrefreshing sleep, and excessive daytime sleepiness (McNicholas & Pevernagie, 2022). Narcolepsy is characterized by a decreased ability to regulate sleep–wake cycles. Narcolepsy-induced episodes of daytime sleepiness can be accompanied by cataplexy (loss of muscle tonus), or muscular weakness, which lead to body collapse or paralysis (Chavda et al., 2022).

To Summarize

Since its publication, Alice’s adventures have captured the public’s attention. The book was printed with over a hundred different editions, translated to almost 200 languages, and adapted into numerous films, plays, musicals, ballets, operas, children’s books, board and video games. In addition to his contribution to literature, Carroll might have provided neurology with an insight into a network of perceptual symptoms, which benefit a hidden group of patients, allowing them to obtain an accurate diagnosis, adequate reassurance, and appropriate treatment.

References

Blom, J. D. (2016). Alice in Wonderland syndrome: A systematic review. Neurology: Clinical Practice, 6(3), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.1212/CPJ.0000000000000251

Carroll, L. (1865). Alice’s adventures in Wonderland. Chadwick and Sons.

Chavda, V., Chaurasia, B., Umana, G. E., Tomasi, S. O., Lu, B., & Montemurro, N. (2022). Narcolepsy-A neuropathological obscure sleep disorder: A narrative review of current literature. Brain Sciences, 12(11), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12111473

Douglas-Fairhurst, R. (2015). The story of Alice: Lewis Carroll and the secret history of Wonderland. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674287105

Farooq, O., & Fine, M. D. (2017). Alice in Wonderland syndrome: A historical and medical review. Pediatric Neurology, 77, 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2017.08.008

Fine, E. J. (2013). The Alice in Wonderland syndrome. Progress in Brain Research, 206, 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63364-4.00025-9

Hamed, S. A. (2010). A migraine variant with abdominal colic and Alice in Wonderland syndrome: A case report and review. BMC Neurology, 10, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-10-2

Landais, A., & Michelin, T. (2019). A unicorn in Alice in Wonderland syndrome. World Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 18(4), 434–436. https://doi.org/10.4103/wjnm.WJNM_77_18

Liu, A. M., Liu, J. G., Liu, G. W., & Liu, G. T. (2014). "Alice in wonderland" syndrome: Presenting and follow-up characteristics. Pediatric Neurology, 51(3), 317–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2014.04.007

Mastria, G., Mancini, V., Viganò, A., & Di Piero, V. (2016). Alice in Wonderland syndrome: A clinical and pathophysiological review. BioMed Research International, 2016, 8243145. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8243145

McNicholas, W. T., & Pevernagie, D. (2022). Obstructive sleep apnea: Transition from pathophysiology to an integrative disease model. Journal of Sleep Research, 31(4), e13616. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13616

O’Toole, P., & Modestino, E. J. (2017). Alice in Wonderland syndrome: A real life version of Lewis Carroll’s novel. Brain & Development, 39, 470–474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2017.01.004

Park, J. D., & Zheng, W. (2012). Human exposure and health effects of inorganic and elemental mercury. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, 45(6), 344–352. https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2012.45.6.344

Philip, M., Kornitzer, J., Marks, D., Lee, H. J., & Souayah, N. (2015). Alice in Wonderland syndrome associated with a temporo-parietal cavernoma. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9(4), 910–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-015-9355-y

Podoll, K., & Robinson, D. (1999). Lewis Carroll's migraine experiences. Lancet, 353(9161), 1366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)74368-3

Dr. Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg is an associate professor of psychology at Saint Francis University, where she also serves as the coordinator of the animal-assisted health and education minor and as a co-coordinator of the interdisciplinary neuroscience minor. Her research interests include the neurobiological mechanisms underlying mood and anxiety disorders, the mutually beneficial effects of the human-animal bond, and the impact of training on the adoption outcomes of shelter animals. She enjoys hiking, baking, and spending time with animals. Email her at sfgrinberg@francis.edu

Introduction

The 1993 film adaptation of Gypsy (Ardolino, 1993) centers around Rose Hovick and her two daughters, June and Louise, as they travel across the country with their manager Herbie, performing their vaudeville show in the hopes of achieving fame and stardom. Rose is very controlling of both her daughters; however, she focuses primarily on June since she is the star act and talent in their show. When June runs away, Rose turns her attention to Louise, who now moves from the background to the main attraction. Eventually, finding little success, they make their way to a burlesque show. After being pushed to strip by Rose, who sees this as her last opportunity to become a star, Louise finds she enjoys this type of performance. This leads her to become one of the most successful and popular burlesque stars known as Gypsy Rose Lee. Throughout the film, Rose’s dynamic characterization and questionable actions hold a significant impact, making it a great film to watch from a psychological perspective. Specifically, Rose exhibits characteristics of narcissism, favoritism, and helicopter parenting in Gypsy, which guide and influence her actions, serving as the catalyst for many of the significant conflicts in the musical.

Narcissism

Throughout the show, Rose demonstrates many narcissistic tendencies and traits. Narcissism is a personality disorder characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, exploitation of others, need for admiration, and feelings of entitlement (Cleveland Clinic, 2023). Rose exhibits these qualities, specifically when she feels anger and betrayal for not receiving appreciation from her daughters. She feels entitled to gratitude and praise for the time and effort she put into her daughters’ success, stating that it should be her turn.

Many of these narcissistic beliefs form the foundation of Rose’s personality, which may explain some of her questionable choices. For example, by putting her desire for fame and success over everything, such as her daughters’ hopes and goals, Rose prioritizes extrinsic goals over intrinsic values of community and family, which is a tendency of narcissism (Abeyta et al., 2017). She prevents June from going to an acting school and headlining her own show, while she also forces Louise to become a stripper despite Louise’s clear initial discomfort. Additionally, Rose continuously postpones marriage to Herbie as she is unwilling to give up on her dream, once again placing her own goals above those close to her.

Rose’s narcissism puts a large strain on her relationships with her daughters. In fact, narcissists tend to have higher levels of disharmony and subjugation in their relationships, because there is less security and more dismissal, which possibly results in higher levels of withdrawal (Day et al., 2022). This is seen in the film as everyone begins to leave Rose. June runs away after Rose continuously exerts absolute control over her. Lousie withdrawals and begins to separate from Rose as she develops her own sense of independence through stripping. Even Herbie, who is in love with Rose for most of the film, eventually leaves her after their values clash over making Louise strip.

A defining factor of Rose's romantic relationship with Herbie is her characteristics of narcissistic admiration as she prioritizes self-enhancement over all else (Grove et al., 2019). The functionality and longevity of romantic relationships of those with narcissistic admiration is associated with and may be dependent on levels of respect (Vrabel et al., 2021). When respect in the relationship is high, the relationship flourishes; however, once it is lost, the relationship tends to deteriorate and break as it loses all function (Vrabel et al., 2021). This is seen in the film when the relationship between Rose and Herbie is at its strongest and Herbie holds Rose in high regards and follows her whims. On the other hand, once this respect and admiration toward Rose is lost, their relationship permanently ends with Herbie disgusted by Rose for forcing Louise to strip. Rose’s narcissistic characteristics hold much influence over her actions, because her sole focus is herself and achieving stardom. This self-serving drive and focus ultimately leaves her isolated and alone, because it puts a wedge between Rose and those around her, fulfilling many of the tendencies and patterns of narcissism.

Favoritism

Favoritism is when a parent shows preferential treatment toward one child over another (Suitor et al., 2017). We see a large discrepancy in how Rose treats Louise and June: June is clearly the favorite and Louise is constantly brushed aside for her sister. For example, although Louise receives some attention from her mother on her birthday, she is quickly forgotten when an opportunity to further June’s career presents itself. Rose even asks to use Louise’s unopened present for June’s new act, demonstrating where her bias lies. This preferential treatment may be explained in that shared values are likely to result in more favoritism, whereas disappointment is based on the mother’s relative beliefs rather than societal norms (Suitor et al., 2016). Thus, June is likely the favorite child because she values and exhibits the talent and motivation that Rose desires. Despite supporting these endeavors, Louise never receives the same treatment, because she does not meet Rose’s standards. Even when Louise becomes a successful star, Rose does not see her as good enough because burlesque and stripping are beneath her expectations. Despite June running away and betraying her mother, Rose still favors her over Louise, which makes sense, because favoritism generally remains stable over time (Suitor et al., 2013).

After June leaves, Rose pivots her attention to Louise as a replacement. Although there is more focus on Louise, the preference stays intact as Rose tries to change Louise to be more like June, forcing her to wear a blond wig and sing June's song rather than embrace her individuality. This clear preferential treatment might have negatively impacted June and Louise’s bond. Considering that favoritism tends to decrease sibling intimacy and closeness, Rose’s favoritism toward June strains June and Louise’s relationship (Jensen et al., 2013). Although June and Lousie sometimes relate and confide in each other about their problems and frustrations with their mother, they are not depicted as having a close bond. For example, June never tells Lousie about her relationship with Tulsa, who is a dancer in their show, and her plans to run away with him. This disconnect likely results due to the barrier in place from Rose’s favoritism; June likely does not trust Louise to hide her plans from their mother. Overall, Gypsy accurately depicts the motivations and pitfalls of favoritism as Rose prioritizes June’s success at the expense of Louise.

Overparenting

Overparenting is a parenting style in which parents grossly overprotect their children by being excessively involved in their lives and paying too much attention to them (Leung, 2021). Rose is very controlling of her daughters’ lives, dictating what they do and where they go. For example, she prevents June from attending theater school and having her own show because it would break up the act and reduce Rose’s control over the situation. This overparenting serves as a detriment to Rose’s relationship with her daughter since helicopter parenting often results in lower levels of communication and openness (Segrin et al., 2012). Rose never listens to June’s or Louise’s points of view or dreams, such as Louise’s desire for a “normal” life; rather, she continues to maintain that she knows best and that they should follow her.

Despite the extreme interest in their children’s lives, overparenting is associated with insecure attachment styles where the children are afraid of not being cared for enough (Jiao & Segrin, 2022). This is shown through Louise’s relationship with Rose. Louise constantly obeys her mother’s commands without complaint, trying to gain and maintain Rose’s approval. She consistently encourages and supports their travels despite holding some internal resentment and desire for a different life. This insecure attachment also feeds into her possible romantic relationships as it often leads her to worry about being abandoned while also feeling nervous about getting too close (Jiao & Segrin, 2022). Louise shows a romantic interest in Tulsa. Although she believes he feels the same way, she is not upfront with him, maintaining her distance to avoid upsetting Rose or getting hurt.

In addition to attachment styles, Rose’s helicopter parenting style might have affected her daughters’ development and personality. Overparenting is associated with increased entitlement and narcissism in the child (Segrin et al., 2013). This may be due to the parents never allowing them to experience failure or grow into an autonomous person, leading them to seek approval from others as an adult. Both Louise and June exhibit these tendencies as they both pursue jobs in show business in which they get applause and approval from the audience, replacing the attention and praise they receive from their mother.

Overparenting also is associated with poor coping mechanisms, specifically distancing and internalization (Segrin et al., 2013). June demonstrates distancing when she physically runs away to relieve herself from her mother. On the other hand, Louise portrays internalization as a coping mechanism. She tends to keep her emotions hidden and be more reserved. However, she does internally struggle as she recognizes that others see her as a joke, hiding her feelings as she falsely embraces the insults and laughs at herself before they can. Based on the information and the movie, overparenting can have debilitating effects on the relationship between a parent and child as the connection weakens and often breaks despite the overbearing closeness.

Conclusion

Gypsy accurately demonstrates the psychological themes and aspects of narcissism, favoritism, and helicopter parenting. These are primarily seen through Rose’s choices and interactions with other characters, specifically June, Louise, and Herbie. She consistently places her needs and wants over those around her, demonstrating narcissism. She shows favoritism in her preferential treatment of June. Finally, her extreme control and attention over June and Louise's lives displays clear examples of helicopter parenting. Because of the changing dynamics between the characters, the film shows the dangers and power these concepts have on relationships. They are often all connected to fractured or broken relationships. It is important to be mindful of fulfilling these concepts and characteristics since the film does not promote them, rather it shows the negative aspects and tendencies of narcissism, favoritism, and overparenting as in the end most people separate themselves from Rose, leaving her alone and isolated.

References

Abeyta, A. A., Routledge, C., & Sedikides, C. (2017). Material meaning: Narcissists gain existential benefits from extrinsic goals. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(2), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616667618

Ardolino, E. (Director) (1993). Gypsy [film]. Storyline Entertainment.

Cleveland Clinic. (2023, August 3). Turning your attention to narcissistic personality disorder. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9742-narcissistic-personality-disorder

Day, N. J. S., Townsend, M. L., & Grenyer, B. F. S. (2022). Living with pathological narcissism: Core conflictual relational themes within intimate relationships. BMC Psychiatry, 22(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03660-

Grove, T. L., Smith, T. W., Girard, J. M., & Wright, A. G. (2019). Narcissistic admiration and rivalry: An interpersonal approach to construct validation. Journal of Personality Disorders, 33(6). https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2019_33_374

Jensen, A. C., Whiteman, S. D., Fingerman, K. L., & Birditt, K. S. (2013). “Life still isn’t fair”: Parental differential treatment of young adult siblings. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(2), 438–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12002

Jiao, J., & Segrin, C. (2022). Overparenting and emerging adults’ insecure attachment with parents and romantic partners. Emerging Adulthood, 10(3), 725–730. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696821997710

Leung J. T. (2021). Overparenting, Parent–child conflict and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: A cross-lagged panel study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 11887. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211887

Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., Bauer, A., & Murphy, M. T. (2012). The association between overparenting, parent–child communication, and entitlement and adaptive traits in adult children. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 61(2), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00689.x

Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., & Montgomery, N. (2013). Parent and child traits associated with overparenting. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32(6), 569–595. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.6.569

Suitor, J. J., Gilligan, M., & Pillemer, K. (2013). Continuity and change in mothers’ favoritism toward offspring in adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(5), 1229–1247. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12067

Suitor, J. J., Gilligan, M., Peng, S., Con, G., Rurka, M., & Pillemer, K. (2016). My pride and joy? Predicting favoritism and disfavoritism in mother–adult child relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(4), 908–925. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12288

Emma Austin is in her final semester at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She will graduate with a degree in Psychology and then immediately attend graduate school for school counseling. In her free time Emma enjoys reading and attending Broadway musicals.

Jill Swirsky, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Holy Family University in Philadelphia, PA. Her research interests include peer relationships and social dynamics among early adolescents (e.g., aggression, victimization, and popularity) as well as the role of social media behaviors in adolescent development and adjustment. She is also an avid lover of musical theater, fantasy novels, and all things fandom. In her (admittedly extremely limited) free time, Dr. S enjoys binge-watching Netflix with her partner (Mike) and cats (Newt and Copper), crafting, and writing snail-mail letters to her many pen pals. Follow her on LinkedIn or email her at jswirsky@holyfamily.edu

When the United States Olympic team arrives in Paris, France, for the 2024 Summer Olympics, they will bring a large support team with them, including the members of the Mental Health & Mental Performance Team (www.usopc.org/mental-health). The work of this group first began in February 2020 (Abrams, 2021). This team of nine psychologists, led by clinical psychologist Dr. Jessica Bartley (click here to review the team member bios), works with the U.S. athletes to achieve the following:

• As part of our mission, the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USOPC) is committed to achieving sustained competitive excellence and well-being for Team USA athletes. More than ever, it is critical that the USOPC empower Team USA athletes seeking assistance around mental health and mental performance and we are excited to continue to provide education and resources in these areas. The USOPC Psychological Services team supports Team USA USA athletes across the psychological spectrum by providing internal and external resources that range from mental health to mental performance and everything in between. (United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee, 2024)

The Mental Health & Mental Performance team provides a number of resources for members of the U.S. Olympic teams. Some of these include psychological support helplines (in addition to the services provided by 9-8-8), a mental health registry to help connect athletes with mental health professionals experienced in working with elite athletes, virtual counseling services, access to mental performance services, and two mental health apps.

Although the Mental Health & Mental Performance team specifically targets the mental health of Olympic Athletes, many athletes also work with sports psychologists to enhance their performance (Abrams, 2021). Sports psychologists focus on many aspects of the athlete’s performance, including pre-performance routines (e.g., visualization and meditation) and strategies for remaining focused during competition.

The inclusion of sports psychology and mental health services extends beyond the Olympics into organizations and leagues for high-performance athletes. For example, the National Football League in the United States requires that all teams have a mental health clinician on staff and integrated into team activities (National Football League). As of the time of this headline’s writing, the NFL’s Total Wellness platform is overseen by Nyaka NiiLampti, Vice President of Wellness and Clinical Services and a licensed psychologist (National Football League, n.d.). The National Basketball Association’s Mental Health & Wellness Program is also overseen by a psychologist, Dr. William D. Parham, (Loyola Marymount University, 2023). The National Hockey League announced a mental health initiative in January 2024, with lead consultation services provided by Dr. Jay Harrison, a performance psychologist (National Hockey League’s Player Association, 2024).

References

Abrams, Z. (2021, July 30). How sport psychologists are helping Olympians. https://www.apa.org/topics/mental-health/going-for-gold

Loyola Marymount University–LMU Newsroom. (2023, November 21). Mental health and wellness for NBA players. https://newsroom.lmu.edu/lmu-in-the-news/mental-health-and-wellness-for-nba-players

National Football League. (NFL). (n.d.). NFL total wellness. Retrieved on March 16, 2024: https://operations.nfl.com/inside-football-ops/players-legends/nfl-total-wellness

National Football League. Total Wellness. (n.d.). Who we are. Retrieved on March 16, 2024: https://totalwellness.nfl.com/who-we-are/

National Hockey League Players' Association. (NHLPA). (2024, January 10). First line: Players looking out for each other off the ice. https://www.nhlpa.com/news/1-22601/first-line-players-looking-out-for-each-other-off-the-ice

United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USOPC). (n.d.). Mental health. Retrieved on March 16, 2024: https://www.usopc.org/mental-health

People are often surprised to discover that the study of psychology extends beyond human behavior. For instance, psychology has a rich history of studying animal behavior both for its own sake and as a way to better understand human behavior. A wonderful example of the application of psychology to the improvement of lives of animals is the work of Dr. Terry L. Maple, who died on December 3, 2023.

Dr. Maple didn’t plan to take psychology to the zoo. Prior to completing his degree in 1968, he studied psychology and played baseball as an undergraduate student at the University of the Pacific (2023). He then completed a masters and doctoral degree at University of California, Davis, in psychobiology. His first full-time academic appointment was at Emory University. In 1984, Dr. Maple was appointed by the mayor of Atlanta to take over the disgraced Atlanta Zoo. Under Dr. Maple’s stewardship, the Atlanta Zoo (now called Zoo Atlanta) transformed from scandal ridden to world-renowned for its innovation and animal care (Safari Professionals, n.d.). Dr. Maple’s success was largely due to the recognition of the importance of considering animal psychology as a critical part of animal care (Goldman, 2012).

As part of a 2012 interview with Scientific American’s blog, Dr. Maple spoke of part of his innovative approach toward “wellness” in zoos:

• The one idea that I am pursuing with other zoos that is fairly new is the concept of "wellness." I'm helping the San Francisco Zoo to implement a comprehensive wellness program that will inform exhibit design and help them to monitor and enhance wellness through advances in nutrition and training to activate/exercise animals in the zoo population. Wellness is a blend of biology and psychology and it also provides visitors with an example of how wellness in zoo animals can contribute to our understanding of wellness in our families and our communities. I think the wellness concept will prove to be a very useful concept as we strive for optimal environments, standards, and practices for each and every unique species in the zoo. (Goldman, 2012)

Of particular interest in Dr. Maple’s zoo journey is the degree to which human psychology research informed his work with zoo animals. Dr. Maple stated that much of his work was informed by the work of environmental psychologists, including his mentor Robert Sommer, who focused on how the artificial environment impacts human behavior. He was also inspired by the works of Abraham Maslow (Goldman, 2012).

As the role of zoos in the management of endangered and at-risk species increases, so will the importance of psychologists in creating an environment of “wellness” for zoo animals. This work will allow zoo animals to thrive as they help their species to survive.

References

Goldman, J. (2012, April 4). A psychologist goes to the zoo: An interview with Terry L. Maple. Scientific American Blog Network. https://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/thoughtful-animal/a-psychologist-goes-to-the-zoo-an-interview-with-terry-l-maple/

Safari Professionals (n.d.). Terry L. Maple. Retrieved on March 15, 2024 from https://www.safariprofessionals.com/dr-terry-l-maple/

University of the Pacific. (2023, March 18). Terry Maple '77: Champion of animal rights and builder of quality zoos. Pacific Newsroom. https://www.pacific.edu/pacific-newsroom/terry-maple-77-was-champion-animal-rights-and-builder-quality-zoos

The moving picture preceded the advent of recorded audio. However, even from the very beginning, movie makers understood the importance of sound in the movie-going experience. Piano and small orchestra accompaniment was a critical part of the silent movie experience. The local musician was frequently called upon to provide the music they felt must appropriate to the film (Model & Custodio, 2019). As recorded audio became more prevalent, the importance and complexity of the soundtrack increased (Jack Black’s character, Miles, in the film The Holiday speaks eloquently of the importance of the soundtrack). Rob Kennedy, writing for Interlude, created a three-part series on psychology and the movie soundtrack that provides a worthwhile read on the history and analysis of music and the movies (click here for the first part of the series).

Experimental psychologists help us understand how movie soundtracks transport us into the movie experience. For example, Ansani and colleagues (2020) conducted an online study of how music shapes interpretation of an ambiguous scene. Results from their study indicate that one of the cues we use to make sense of the scene is the tone of the music. Emotional information is extracted from the music, then used to make assumptions about the inner experiences of portrayed characters. Further work by this team highlighted the emotional information effect of music over emotion-induction (Ansani et al., 2023). In a similar line of research, Hoeckner and colleagues (2011) demonstrated that character likability is strongly influenced by the type of music associated with the character.

Those interested in applying psychology to the moviegoing experience can create their career by completing undergraduate and/or graduate degrees in psychology, music, and film. The deeper the understanding of human psychology, the stronger the connection the composer and audio team can forge between the real world and the imaginary one the writers and directors are building for the audience.

For an interesting discussions of the role of music in the movie experience, we recommend listening to episode #67 of the Minding the Brain podcast, “The Psychology of Soundtracks with Joe Kraemer” and episode #11 of the APA’s Speaking of Psychology podcast, which includes a discussion of music and mental health by Daniel Levitin.

References

Ansani, A., Marini, M., D’Errico, F., & Poggi, I. (2020). How soundtracks shape what we see: Analyzing the influence of music on visual scenes through self-assessment, eye tracking, and pupillometry. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02242

Ansani, A., Marini, M., Poggi, I., & Mallia, L. (2023). Recognition memory in movie scenes: The soundtrack induces mood-coherent bias, but not through mood induction. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 35(1), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2022.2116448

Hoeckner, B., Wyatt, E. W., Decety, J., & Nusbaum, H. (2011). Film music influences how viewers relate to movie characters. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 5(2), 146–153. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0021544

Model, B., & Custodio, I. (2019). Hearing silent films with Ben Model. Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). https://www.moma.org/magazine/articles/23

I recently flew back from a trip. As I entered the airport, boarded my plane, and made the trip safely—and mostly uneventfully—home, I didn’t think much about all of the psychology involved in air travel. I doubt this would be true of Dr. Julia Behrend, a cognitive neuroscientist at École Normale Supérieur in Paris, France, and Head of Safety Innovation and Human Cooperation at Air France (Behrend, n.d.).

Dr. Behrend’s professional work focuses on how to create human-machine interfaces that maximize safety for airline crews and passengers. Some of Dr. Behrend’s recent work includes a study of decision-making by pilot teams (Behrend & Dehais, 2020), human error due to cognitive perseveration under stress (Dehais et al., 2019), and eye-tracking as a tool to improve decision-making training (Causse et al., 2019). Dr. Behrend’s work is founded in the ideas, tools, and technologies of cognitive psychology.

Application of psychology to aviation has a long history. During World War II, airplanes became more advanced and complex, which led to an increase in the number of accidents. To address this issue, the Air Force assigned Lt. Colonel Paul Fitts, a psychologist with a PhD in experimental psychology (University of Michigan, n.d.), and later Alphonse Chapinis, another PhD in experimental psychology (Lavietes, 2022), to investigate why pilots of the new B-17 planes were crashing. Fitts and Chapinis discovered a significant problem: The same design was used for instruments throughout the plane. For example, the wing flaps and landing gear were the same shape and placed close together on the instrument panel. This made it easy for pilots to confuse the two and operate them incorrectly, especially when flying in the dark or in a damaged aircraft.

The solution was simple: Use different levers and knobs for different systems, and move competing systems away from each other. These solutions may seem obvious now, but at the time, they were groundbreaking and have since become standard in the design of products that are meant to interface with human psychology (for a great exploration of other ways in which psychologists created technologies that we take for granted today, do a search for Lillian Gilbreth and study her fascinating career and life, maybe starting here).

Dr. Behrend’s work with Air France on pilot decision-making and flight safety is just one example of psychology’s role in air travel. Psychologists are involved in multiple aspects of plane and airport design, passenger security screening, and many other unrecognized aspects of air travel. While the experience of air travel can be frustrating today, it would likely be much worse without the application of psychological principles and technologies.

References

Behrend, J. (n.d.). [LinkedIn page]. Retrieved March 15, 2024, from https://www.linkedin.com/in/dr-julia-behrend-60466561/

Behrend, J., & Dehais, F. (2020). How role assignment impacts decision-making in high-risk environments: Evidence from eye-tracking in aviation. Safety Science, 127, 104738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104738

Causse, M., Lancelot, F., Maillant, J., Behrend, J., Cousy, M., & Schneider, N. (2019). Encoding decisions and expertise in the operator's eyes: Using eye-tracking as input for system adaptation. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 125, 55–65. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.12.010

Dehais, F., Hodgetts, H. M., Causse, M., Behrend, J., Durantin, G., & Tremblay, S. (2019). Momentary lapse of control: A cognitive continuum approach to understanding and mitigating perseveration in human error. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 100, 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.006

Lavietes, S. (2002, October 15). Alphonse Chapanis dies at 85; Was a founder of Ergonomics. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/15/us/alphonse-chapanis-dies-at-85-was-a-founder-of-ergonomics.html

University of Michigan–LSA Department of Psychology. (n.d.). Paul M. Fitts Family. https://lsa.umich.edu/psych/alumni/donor-impact/paul-m--fitts-family.html

An effective officer team is the lifeblood of your Psi Chi chapter. Recently, Psi Chi Headquarters staff members have been meeting virtually with faculty advisors to learn about chapters’ unique processes for finding and recruiting student members to become officers each year. This blog post explores some of the many creative and effective strategies discovered so far.

First, When to Get Started

Chapters often recruit new officers in March or April when the spring semester nears its conclusion and many senior officers approach graduation. Consider which recruitment timeframe would work best based on your school’s calendar, and strive to have all officers officially elected in time for your spring induction ceremony.

We discovered that some chapters also host a mid-year election in November or December as needed. This allows them to provide winter graduates with opportunities to serve on a shorter six-month timeline while also promoting the primary chapter election that takes place each spring. Having some officers roll on and off at different times of the year (as opposed to every officer starting fresh simultaneously) could also be very helpful for maintaining “momentum” regarding chapter projects and events. Give it a try!

Last but not least, students and faculty often have full plates in the spring, so it was fairly common for advisors we met with to express that the officer recruitment process sometimes takes a little longer than anticipated. When planning your timeline for recruiting officers, try giving yourself a little wiggle room for the unexpected.

Second, Who to Involve

Advisors must be involved to some degree each year, of course! However, some of the most active chapters are relatively self-sufficient—allowing advisors to be mostly hands-free as their officers strive to help identify, recruit, and train an incoming officer as part of their annual responsibilities. Don’t be afraid to involve your students in the process. Your officers may have insights and leads for potential new officers that you haven’t considered.

Creative Ideas to Identify and Recruit Student Officers

• At chapter meetings and events, regularly remind attending members about upcoming officer positions.
• Brainstorm potential officers and conduct in-person invitations for them to run for chapter leadership positions.
• Contact other psychology faculty to request that they each recommend one or two exceptional students who might be willing and able to serve.
• Create and share a Google Forms poll throughout the year to gauge interest in various officer openings (and collect contact info with it).
• Create a new Elections Coordinator officer who can organize the officer recruitment and elections process each year.
• Post physical information about chapter leadership opportunities on campus.
• Host a chapter meeting/event where students are paired with officers to “shadow” them and see what being an officer is like.
• Host a “career day” or panel-type event where outgoing officers share their experiences and advice.
• Raffle off a Psi Chi T-shirt or other prize to those who volunteer to become an officer.
• Promote open officer positions on chapter- or department-run social media.

Suggestions for Small Chapters

Some chapters can only induct a handful of eligible students and officers each year due to the small size of their psychology department. To increase the size of your chapter (and thus increase the pool of potential officers), consider reaching out to potential members beyond your psychology department; specifically, did you know that students in programs related to psychology (e.g., biopsychology or educational psychology) can join Psi Chi? Although sometimes overlooked, psychology minors and psychology graduate students can also join and become chapter officers. (Note. All members must of course meet the standard eligibility requirements available online.)

In cases where your chapter only has a small number of student members (most all of whom are chapter officers, we hope!), consider inviting Psych Club members or students in general to attend any events hosted by your chapter leaders. This will help them make a bigger impact across your community. Your chapter can also connect with other chapters in your local area to cohost a larger event at one of your campuses. If hosting virtual collaborative events, you could share resources and ideas with chapters from anywhere around the globe.

Suggestions for Large Chapters

Some of Psi Chi’s biggest chapters induct hundreds of members each semester. Fortunately, there is no limit to how many officers your chapter can have. Try to maximize your officer team size so that everyone can get involved. Here are 16 suggested officer roles for your chapter. Feel free to personalize and expand this list as necessary to meet your chapter’s unique needs. Advisors and chapter presidents, you might be happy to discover that having more officers (such as an elections officer, an officer accountability officer, etc.) can make running your chapter easier for you.

One challenge that large chapters face is finding a time to meet that works for everyone. Consider implementing Google Forms or other methods to identify times that work for as many people as possible. Another solution could be to create a new officer position dedicated to broadcasting and recording your chapter’s in-person events (via YouTube, Facebook, etc.) so that all members can participate whenever and wherever. You might find that some nontraditional students would like to become officers if they can participate in meetings virtually.

Thanks for reading this post and for your interest in growing your chapter’s leadership team. If your chapter has other strategies in place that work well for officer recruitment, please email those to publishing@psichi.org. We would be delighted to find out what works best for your chapter.

Psychology undergraduates, graduate students, and faculty: Would you like to learn how to broaden student access to psychological research opportunities, improve psychological science, and practice open science?

Join us at IGNITE Psi Chi Research 2024 to discuss Innovating Global Networks to Inspire Tomorrow’s Experts.

This National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded research training/teaching conference will take place the day before the Psychonomic Society 2024 Annual Meeting at 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., November 21, 2024, at the Marriott Marquis Hotel in New York City.

Registration is free and opens July 1, 2024. Apply for a travel grant when you register! Grants are open to U.S.-based undergraduate students, graduate students, and faculty; Psi Chi membership is not required.

As an international leader in promoting excellence in psychological research, Psi Chi’s conference will address two longstanding issues in psychological research and scientific exploration:

1. need for improved research practices and
2. lack of undergraduate student participation in research due to barriers of time and resources.

The conference will focus on education about and training on use of a unique Psi Chi platform that allows for research to be conducted in a scientifically valid and resource-efficient way. This platform, Network for International Collaborative Exchange (NICE), incorporates ideas of evidence-based practices proven to substantially improve the quality of research, while facilitating crowd-based, cross-cultural collaboration that reduces individual commitment of time and resources. The conference will be conducted for the benefit of undergraduate students, as well as the faculty and graduate students who teach them and who may also participate in (NICE) data collection themselves.

The NICE projects are all conducted using the Open Science Framework (OSF), and sessions will actively train participants on OSF use. As a special bonus, OSF founder Dr. Brian Nosek will be our Keynote Speaker after lunch.

The conference content will allow undergraduate students to develop critical skills needed to conduct high-quality research and contribute to research projects of global scale that advance psychology as a science. The overarching conference goal is to educate and train students in the social and behavioral sciences to become emerging leaders for adopting the best research practices with the support of the NICE platform. The conference will provide hands-on training workshops on the NICE projects and OSF supporting webpage, as well as train-the-trainer sessions to give faculty and graduate student mentors tools to teach the platform at their home institutions as well as opportunities to network.

IGNITE will be held 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. on November 21, 2024, just before the kick-off of the Psychonomic Society Annual Meeting Opening Session and Keynote Speaker that evening. The Psychonomic Society is one of the forefront international meetings for cognitive psychologists. The Psychonomic Society Annual Meeting ends at noon on November 24. Registration/travel grant information for both events will be announced on the Psychonomic Society website as well as here.

You may also learn more about Psi Chi’s NSF application for funding the conference by visiting HERE.